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NASA NTRS1989

Sensitivity of actively damped structures to imperfections and modeling errors

The sensitivity of actively damped response of structures with respect to errors in the structural modeling is studied. Two ways of representing errors are considered. The first approach assumes errors in the form of spatial variations (or imperfections) in the assumed mass and stiffness properties of the structures. The second approach assumes errors due to such factors as unknown joint stiffnesses, discretization errors, and nonlinearities. These errors are represented here as discrepancies between experimental and analytical mode shapes and frequencies. The actively damped system considered here is a direct-rate feedback regulator based on a number of colocated velocity sensors and force actuators. The response of the controlled structure is characterized by the eigenvalues of the closed-loop system. The effects of the modeling errors are thus presented as the sensitivity of the eigenvalues of the closed-loop system. Results are presented for two examples: (1) a three-span simply supported beam controlled by three sensors and actuators, and (2) a laboratory structure consisting of a cruciform beam supported by cables.

Haftka, Raphael T.↗

NASA NTRSDate not supplied

Sensitivity Analysis of Geometric Imperfection Sources in Honeycomb Cores on Flatwise Compression Behavior

Manufacturing aluminum honeycomb core material using the expansion process can lead to geometric imperfections in the cellular core structures. These imperfections arise due to irregularities introduced in the initial foil bonding, variations in foil thickness, and residual stresses from manufacturing processes. Such geometric imperfections include cell shape distortions, cell wall waviness, non-uniform cell wall thickness, and variability in the shape and height of the adhesive fillet. Imperfections in the cell walls negatively affect the transverse compression and shear strength, while also reducing the resistance to damage under impact loads. Previous work presented the identification and quantification of these manufactured imperfections using high resolution X-ray computed tomography (CT) scans of honeycomb cores in co-cured composite sandwich panels. The present paper presents a sensitivity analysis of individual components of the sources of geometric imperfections on the flatwise compression of aluminum honeycomb cores. The initial geometric imperfections in honeycomb cells are decomposed into three components, namely cell shape (cell edge length and cell internal angles) in-plane cell wall waviness, and out-of-plane waviness along the core thickness. A sensitivity analysis is conducted using finite element (FE) models of the decomposed imperfections to understand how each component affects compression failure.

aluminum honycomb↗

NASA NTRS1992

Adaptive finite element strategies for shell structures

The present paper extends existing finite element adaptive refinement (AR) techniques to shell structures, which have heretofore been neglected in the AR literature. Specific challenges in applying AR to shell structures include: (1) physical discontinuities (e.g., stiffener intersections); (2) boundary layers; (3) sensitivity to geometric imperfections; (4) the sensitivity of most shell elements to mesh distortion, constraint definition and/or thinness; and (5) intrinsic geometric nonlinearity. All of these challenges but (5) are addressed here.

Stanley, G.↗

NASA NTRS1992

Nondestructive evaluation of a ceramic matrix composite material

Monolithic ceramic materials have proven their usefulness in many applications, yet, their potential for critical structural applications is limited because of their sensitivity to small imperfections. To overcome this extreme sensitivity to small imperfections, ceramic matrix composite materials have been developed that have the ability to withstand some distributed damage. A borosilicate glass reinforced with several layers of silicon-carbide fiber mat has been studied. Four-point flexure and tension tests were performed not only to determine some of the material properties, but also to initiate a controlled amount of damage within each specimen. Acousto-ultrasonic (AU) measurements were performed periodically during mechanical testing. This paper will compare the AU results to the mechanical test results and data from other nondestructive methods including acoustic emission monitoring and X-ray radiography. It was found that the AU measurements were sensitive to the damage that had developed within the material.

Grosskopf, Paul P.↗

NASA NTRS2016

Imperfection Insensitivity Analyses of Advanced Composite Tow-Steered Shells

Two advanced composite tow-steered shells, one with tow overlaps and another without overlaps, were previously designed, fabricated and tested in end compression, both without cutouts, and with small and large cutouts. In each case, good agreement was observed between experimental buckling loads and supporting linear bifurcation buckling analyses. However, previous buckling tests and analyses have shown historically poor correlation, perhaps due to the presence of geometric imperfections that serve as failure initiators. For the tow-steered shells, their circumferential variation in axial stiffness may have suppressed this sensitivity to imperfections, leading to the agreement noted between tests and analyses. To investigate this further, a numerical investigation was performed in this study using geometric imperfections measured from both shells. Finite element models of both shells were analyzed first without, and then, with measured imperfections that were then, superposed in different orientations around the shell longitudinal axis. Small variations in both the axial prebuckling stiffness and global buckling load were observed for the range of imperfections studied here, which suggests that the tow steering, and resulting circumferentially varying axial stiffness, may result in the test-analysis correlation observed for these shells.

Wu, K. Chauncey↗

NASA NTRS1982

Optimization of composite structures

Structural optimization is introduced and examples which illustrate potential problems associated with optimized structures are presented. Optimized structures may have very low load carrying ability for an off design condition. They tend to have multiple modes of failure occurring simultaneously and can, therefore, be sensitive to imperfections. Because composite materials provide more design variables than do metals, they allow for more refined tailoring and more extensive optimization. As a result, optimized composite structures can be especially susceptible to these problems.

Stroud, W. J.↗

NASA NTRS1983

Optimization of composite structures

Stroud, W. J.↗

NASA NTRS1988

The nonlinear behavior of a passive zero-spring-rate suspension system

Various concepts for advanced syspension systems have been proposed for counteracting gravity loads in ground vibration testing of large space structures. Approximating the flight modes of a low-frequency flexible structure in a ground test requires a very soft suspension system. The dynamic behavior of a passive zero-spring-rate mechanism, sometimes used for such ground testing, is analyzed. This mechanism reduces the stiffness inherent in suspending a test specimen by cables. However, the mechanism is shown to be sensitive to imperfections. Imperfections can initiate nonlinear behavior which becomes more pronounced at lower operating frequencies. Furthermore, large pendular motion of the suspension system couples with the vertical motion, producing additional nonlinearity.

Woodard, Stanley E.↗

NASA NTRS1992

Postbuckling response of stiffened composite cylindrical shells

The local buckling and the associated postbuckling response of stiffened composite shells are studied using an asymptotic approach. Both the classical (Kirchhoff) theory (CPT) and a first-order shear deformation theory (SDT) are employed in the study. SDT analysis was carried out using p-version type finite strips, whereas CPT analysis employed h-version based strips. Convergence studies confirm the superiority of the p-version approach. A panel width-to-thickness ratio of 50 was chosen to investigate the influence of shear deformation for stiffened and isolated panels fabricated out of isotropic and composite layered materials. The shear deformation effects were significant for composite stiffened shell panels with CPT giving a noticeably stiffer response. In comparison with isotropic shell panels, orthotropic layered panels buckle at lower nondimensional buckling loads but are appreciably less sensitive to imperfection.

Sridharan, Srinivasan↗

NASA NTRS2020

Buckling of Thin-Walled Circular Cylinders

Recent industry and NASA experience with the development of launch vehicle structures have indicated a need for updated monographs for the design of buckling-critical structures that account for state-of-the-art structural configurations, material systems, and computational tools. This monograph provides an update to NASA SP-8007 (circa 1965, and 1968) and was prepared under the cognizance of the NASA Engineering and Safety Center (NESC). It summarizes all significant knowledge and experience accumulated from the NESC Shell Buckling Knockdown Factor (SBKF) Assessment (NESC Assessment #: 07-010-E) to date for use in the design of buckling-critical thin-walled circular cylinders. The format and terminology used in this monograph is similar to previous versions of NASA SP-8007 for ease of understanding and implementation. In addition, as with the design recommendations contained in the previous versions of NASA SP-8007, this monograph is to be regarded as a guideline to design and not as a NASA requirement, unless specified in formal program requirements. Furthermore, it is expected that the guidelines presented in this monograph will be updated as appropriate. Designers are advised to stay abreast of updates in the state-of-the-art and corresponding design criteria.

Buckling↗

NASA NTRS2021

Development of a Numerical Modeling Approach for Buckling Analysis of Sandwich Composite Cylindrical Shells with Selected Results

The buckling response of geometrically perfect and imperfect cylindrical sandwich shells can be investigated using nonlinear finite element analyses with two-dimensional general-purpose shell elements. Such analyses are used in the NASA Engineering and Safety Center Shell Buckling Knockdown Factor Project, which has the goal of developing new analysis-based buckling design recommendations for select classes of sandwich composite cylindrical structures under uniaxial compressive load. As such, finite element models of sandwich composite cylinders were developed and analyses were performed to predict the buckling responses of geometrically perfect and imperfect sandwich composite cylinders. The development of the selected finite-element modeling approach for a sandwich composite cylinder is discussed. Buckling-response sensitivity of geometrically imperfect sandwich cylinders for various shell element types were investigated as part of this study. Preliminary results of geometric imperfections influence on buckling response of sandwich cylinders are also presented.

Structural Modeling↗

NASA NTRSDate not supplied

Modeling Effort of TriTruss Modular Structure for In-Space Assembled Telescope Foundational Structure

The TriTruss is a novel and innovative structural module developed by researchers at the NASA Langley Research Center to construct modular structures which can be assembled on-orbit for future persistent missions, including in-space assembled telescopes and platforms for science and communications. The TriTruss offers unique modular structural features including compact packaging for launch, the possibility of staged packaging, simple robotic deployment and assembly, and design versatility for specific space mission applications. This paper presents the modeling and analysis procedure for the TriTruss modular structure and the predicted frequency response of an In-Space Assembled Telescope’s (iSAT) primary reflector.

Structural Modeling↗

NASA NTRSDate not supplied

Supervised Autonomous Assembly to Create and Evolve Persistent Assets

Supervised autonomous assembly (SAA) will create a paradigm shift in the planning and design of future persistent assets (PAs), both in near zero-g environments and on planetary surfaces. SAA refers to an autonomy approach that has the benefits of autonomous assembly as well as the benefits provided by a supervisor (operator) who is available to resolve unexpected situations. SAA provides both increased design freedom as well as reduced programmatic risk. SAA enables evolution of future PAs over decades as in-space operations transition from single purpose missions to creation of PAs, such as laboratories and experimental stations which more closely resembling terrestrial laboratories that can easily adapt and evolve to new missions leveraging repeated visits to the PA. The ability to evolve enables PAs to rapidly respond to changing objectives resulting from new questions as our understanding improves. A recently initiated National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) project in the Space Technology Mission Directorate (STMD) Game Changing Development (GCD) Program called the Precision Assembled Space Structure (PASS), leverages the advantages of SAA to develop technologies that enable efficient creation and evolution of hexagonal topologies; both planar (example: fuel depots) and curved (examples: telescopes and shelters). PASS will be used to provide context for the philosophy and concepts discussed as well as the decision and selections made. PASS objectives are: a) Develop confidence in SAA and on-orbit servicing, assembly and manufacturing (OSAM) technologies by executing a test campaign that uses a path-to-flight autonomous precision assembly process directly applicable to future space telescopes. b) Test autonomous technologies including automated path planning and error recovery, to emphasize a robust approach that relies on generic robots and special purpose tools. c) Validate critical component models using a digital twin that includes the assembled primary mirror support structure and assembly process. A digital twin is a high-fidelity simulation of the asset capable of predicting the on-orbit performance. The paper concludes after identifying the critical need for a modest assembly flight experiment to validate and develop confidence in the SAA paradigm, thus accelerating adoption of the benefits described. SAA is a game changing paradigm that enhances the ability of an organization to infuse new technology through rapid evolution of PAs while leveraging OSAM technologies.

Structural Modeling↗

NASA NTRS1989

Sensitivity of buckling loads of anisotropic shells of revolution to geometric imperfections and design changes

Buckling load sensitivity calculations in the shell-of-revolution program FASOR are discussed. This development is based on Koiter's initial postbuckling theory, which has been generalized to include the effect of stiffness changes, as well as geometric imperfections. The implementation in FASOR is valid for anisotropic, as well as orthotropic, shells. Examples are presented for cylindrical panels under axial compression, complete cylindrical shells in torsion, and antisymmetric angle-ply cylindrical panels under edge shear.

Cohen, Gerald A.↗

NASA NTRSDate not supplied

Implementing Geometric Surface Imperfections into Sandwich Composite Cylinder Finite Element Method Models

The buckling responses of certain cylindrical shell structures are extremely sensitive to geometric imperfections. The NASA Engineering and Safety Center (NESC) Shell Buckling Knockdown Factor Project (SBKF) is conducting research to develop analysis-based buckling design recommendations. Experiments are used to verify the analysis-based factors, but the sensitivity of the test articles to geometric imperfections requires implementing as-manufactured imperfections into high-fidelity finite element method (FEM) models. Geometry measurement methods such as structured light scanning are used for all geometric surface data used in this work. Common preprocessing and visualization steps used in SBKF are discussed, and steps of how surface scans are prepared for implementation into a finite element model is described. The Python Tool for Implementing Geometric Imperfections in Reduced Structures (Py_TIGIRS), written specifically for the use with SBKF, is briefly described and uses eight functions to extract, modify, and write geometric imperfections into Abaqus input files. Results of the preprocessing methods and results from Py_TIGIRS are provided and compared for Composite Test Articles (CTA) 8.2, 8.2B, and 8.3. Excellent agreement between the visualized scan data and the FEM-extracted geometry is demonstrated. A brief example of why geometric surface imperfections are significant in nonlinear numerical analyses for thin cylinders in axial compression is provided as motivation to use tools such as Py_TIGIRS. Future developments of Py_TIGIRS including expansion to structures of arbitrary geometry is planned.

Geometric imperfections↗

NASA NTRSDate not supplied

Implementing Geometric Surface Imperfections into Sandwich Composite Cylinder Finite Element Method Models

Geometric imperfections↗

NASA NTRS2016

Buckling Knockdown Factors for Composite Cylinders

The buckling performance of thin-walled cylindrical shells is well known to be sensitive to small geometric and loading imperfections. During design, this sensitivity is typically accounted for by multiplying the predicted buckling load of a geometrically perfect structure by an empirical design factor known as a buckling knockdown factor (KDF). The most widely used source of KDFs for cylindrical launch-vehicle structures is NASA SP-8007. However, general composite shells are outside the original scope of SP-8007, and a universal KDF of 0.65 for all composite shell designs has been used in several recent NASA studies, though the technical justification is unclear. If the NASA SP-8007 is used to calculate KDFs for composite cylinders, the original assumptions and limitations should be understood and care must be taken. Additionally, the universal KDF of 0.65 is thought to be unconservative for certain designs and is therefore not recommended .

Buckling Knockdown Factors↗

NASA NTRSDate not supplied

Implementing Geometric Surface Imperfections into Sandwich Composite Cylinder Finite Element Method Models

The buckling responses of certain cylindrical shell structures are extremely sensitive to geometric surface imperfections. The NASA Engineering and Safety Center (NESC) Shell Buckling Knockdown Factor Project (SBKF) is conducting research to develop analysis-based buckling design recommendations. Experiments are used to verify the analysis-based factors, but the sensitivity of the test articles to geometric imperfections requires implementing as-manufactured imperfections into high-fidelity finite element method models. Data collection methods such as structured light scanning are used for all geometric surface data used in this work. Common preprocessing and visualization steps used in SBKF are discussed, and steps on how surface scans are prepared for implementation into a finite element model is described. The Python Tool for Implementing Geometric Imperfections in Reduced Structures (Py_TIGIRS), written specifically for the use with SBKF, is briefly described and uses eight functions to extract, modify, and write geometric imperfections into Abaqus input files. Results of the pre-processing methods and results from Py_TIGIRS are provided and compared for Composite Test Article (CTA) 8.2B. Excellent agreement between the visualized scan data and the FEM-extracted geometry is demonstrated. A brief example of why geometric surface imperfections are significant in nonlinear numerical analyses for thin cylinders in axial compression is provided as motivation to use tools such as Py_TIGIRS. Future development of Py_TIGIRS including expansion to structures of arbitrary geometry is planned.

Sandwich structures↗