Comparison Between the Measured and Theoretical Span Loadings on a Moderately Swept-forward and a Moderately Swept-back Semispan Wing
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PRESSURE DISTRIBUTION - WINGS, SWEPTBACK & SWEPTFO↗
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Deflection and Stress Analysis of Thin Solid Wings of Arbitrary Plan Form with Particular Reference to Delta Wings
The structural analysis of arbitrary solid cantilever wings by small-deflection thin-plate theory is reduced to the solution of linear ordinary differential equations by the assumption that the chordwise deflections at any spanwise station may be expressed in the form of a power series in which the coefficients are functions of the spanwise coordinate. If the series is limited to the first two and three terms (that is, if linear and parabolic chordwise deflections, respectively, are assumed), the differential equations for the coefficients are solved exactly for uniformly loaded solid delta wings of constant thickness ratio. For cases for which exact solutions to the differential equations cannot be obtained, a numerical procedure is derived. Experimental deflection and stress data for constant-thickness delta-plate specimens of 45 degree and 60 degree sweep are presented and are found to compare favorably with the present theory.
Stein, Manuel↗
Progress on Gust Load Alleviation Wind Tunnel Experiment and Aeroservoelastic Model Validation for a Flexible Wing with Variable Camber Continuous Trailing Edge Flap System
This paper discusses a wind tunnel experiment of active gust load alleviation of a flexible wing which took place at University of Washington (UW) in 2019. The experiment performed under a NASA SBIR contract with Scientific Systems Company, Inc (SSCI). The objective of the experiment is to demonstrate active controls of the Variable Camber Continuous Trailing Edge Flap (VCCTEF) system for gust load alleviation and real-time drag optimization. The wind tunnel model is a 8.2% sub-scale Common Research Model (CRM) wing. The wing structure is designed to provide a substantial degree of flexibility to represent that of a modern high-aspect ratio wing. Eight active control surfaces are employed in the VCCTEF. A new gust generator system was designed and installed by UW under a sub-contract with SSCI. The first test entry started in July 2019 and ended in September 2019. During this test entry, many significant issues were found with the hardware and software. The significant issues with the servos prevented the test objective from being completed. A follow-up second test entry in 2020 is being planned. The wing system is being repaired by SSCI. This paper reports on the progress of this experimental effort and the aeroservoelastic (ASE) model validation which was conducted during the test entry.
Nguyen, Nhan↗
Deflection-Based Aircraft Structural Loads Estimation with Comparison to Flight
Traditional techniques in structural load measurement entail the correlation of a known load with strain-gage output from the individual components of a structure or machine. The use of strain gages has proved successful and is considered the standard approach for load measurement. However, remotely measuring aerodynamic loads using deflection measurement systems to determine aeroelastic deformation as a substitute to strain gages may yield lower testing costs while improving aircraft performance through reduced instrumentation weight. With a reliable strain and structural deformation measurement system this technique was examined. The objective of this study was to explore the utility of a deflection-based load estimation, using the active aeroelastic wing F/A-18 aircraft. Calibration data from ground tests performed on the aircraft were used to derive left wing-root and wing-fold bending-moment and torque load equations based on strain gages, however, for this study, point deflections were used to derive deflection-based load equations. Comparisons between the strain-gage and deflection-based methods are presented. Flight data from the phase-1 active aeroelastic wing flight program were used to validate the deflection-based load estimation method. Flight validation revealed a strong bending-moment correlation and slightly weaker torque correlation. Development of current techniques, and future studies are discussed.
Lizotte, Andrew M.↗
The Factors that Determine the Minimum Speed of an Airplane
The author argues that because of a general misunderstanding of the principles of flight at low speed, there are a large number of airplanes that could be made to fly several miles per hour slower than at present by making slight modifications. In order to show how greatly the wing section affects the minimum speed, curves are plotted against various loadings. The disposition of wings on the airplane slightly affects the lift coefficient, and a few such cases are discussed. Another factor that has an effect on minimum speed is the extra lift exerted by the slip stream on the wings. Also discussed are procedures to be followed by the pilot, especially with regard to stick movements during low speed flight. Also covered are stalling, yaw, rolling moments, lateral control, and the effectiveness of ailerons and rudders.
AIRPLANES - SPEED AND POWER AIRPLANE - SPEED↗
Projection Moire Interferometry Measurements of Micro Air Vehicle Wings
Projection Moire Interferometry (PMI) has been used to measure the structural deformation of micro air vehicle (MAV) wings during a series of wind tunnel tests. The MAV wings had a highly flexible wing structure, generically reminiscent of a bat s wing, which resulted in significant changes in wing shape as a function of MAV angle-of-attack and simulated flight speed. This flow-adaptable wing deformation is thought to provide enhanced vehicle stability and wind gust alleviation compared to rigid wing designs. Investigation of the potential aerodynamic benefits of a flexible MAV wing required measurement of the wing shape under aerodynamic loads. PMI was used to quantify the aerodynamically induced changes in wing shape for three MAV wings having different structural designs and stiffness characteristics. This paper describes the PMI technique, its application to MAV testing, and presents a portion of the PMI data acquired for the three different MAV wings tested.
Fleming, Gary A.↗
Cruise Slotted Wing Design with Natural Laminar Flow for Transonic Commercial Transport Aircraft
The present computational study investigates the aerodynamic design and analysis of cruise slotted wings with natural laminar flow for transonic transport aircraft. The cruise slotted wing is a multielement wing concept that features an intermediate slot to achieve greater aft loading relative to supercritical wings for the potential benefit of reduced shock strength and pressure drag. Transonic near-cruise, off-design assessments have also shown improved drag rise characteristics due to the ability of the slot to mitigate boundary layer separation on the aft flap component. However, due to the decreased Reynolds number of the flap, the cruise slotted wing has historically incurred a skin-friction drag penalty relative to a conventional supercritical wing. To offset this penalty, a cruise slotted wing with the forward main element and aft flap element shaped to achieve natural laminar flow is desired. Toward this effort, a knowledge-based aerodynamic design method, CDISC, has been leveraged to design a partial-span cruise slotted wing with natural laminar flow for a Mach-0.8 variant of the Common Research Model. Drag comparisons will be provided at cruise and near-cruise, off-design conditions relative to both fully turbulent and natural laminar flow conventional wing designs. It is anticipated that pairing natural laminar flow technology with the cruise slotted wing architecture will allow for cruise drag performance similar to conventional laminar flow wings with improved drag rise characteristics and more limited laminar-flow sensitivity at off-design conditions. Preliminary results for a cruise slotted wing with laminar flow on the outboard wing section only have shown a 10-ct cruise drag reduction relative to a conventional supercritical wing, but a 8-ct penalty relative to the conventional NLF wing. The final paper will include results for a cruise slotted wing design with laminar flow on both the inboard and outboard wing sections.
CFD↗
Cruise Slotted Wing Design with Natural Laminar Flow for Transonic Commercial Transport Aircraft
The present computational study investigates the aerodynamic design and analysis of cruise slotted wings with natural laminar flow for transonic transport aircraft. The cruise slotted wing is a multielement wing concept that features an intermediate slot to achieve greater aft loading relative to supercritical wings for the potential benefit of reduced shock strength and pressure drag. Transonic near-cruise, off-design assessments have also shown improved drag rise characteristics due to the ability of the slot to mitigate boundary layer separation on the aft flap component. However, due to the decreased Reynolds number of the flap, the cruise slotted wing has historically incurred a skin-friction drag penalty relative to a conventional supercritical wing. To offset this penalty, a cruise slotted wing with the forward main element and aft flap element shaped to achieve natural laminar flow is desired. Toward this effort, a knowledge-based aerodynamic design method, CDISC, has been leveraged to design a partial-span cruise slotted wing with natural laminar flow for a Mach-0.8 variant of the Common Research Model. Drag comparisons will be provided at cruise and near-cruise, off-design conditions relative to both fully turbulent and natural laminar flow conventional wing designs. It is anticipated that pairing natural laminar flow technology with the cruise slotted wing architecture will allow for cruise drag performance similar to conventional laminar flow wings with improved drag rise characteristics and more limited laminar-flow sensitivity at off-design conditions. Preliminary results for a cruise slotted wing with laminar flow on the outboard wing section only have shown a 10-ct cruise drag reduction relative to a conventional supercritical wing, but a 8-ct penalty relative to the conventional NLF wing. The final paper will include results for a cruise slotted wing design with laminar flow on both the inboard and outboard wing sections.
Natural Laminar Flow↗
Velocity and rolling-moment measurements in the wake of a swept-wing model in the 40 by 80 foot wind tunnel
Measurements were made in the wake of a swept wing model to study the structure of lift generated vortex wakes shed by conventional span loadings and by several span loadings designed to reduce wake velocities. Variations in the span loading on the swept wing generator were obtained by deflecting seven flap segments on each side by amounts determined by vortex lattice theory to approximate the desired span loadings. The resulting wakes were probed with a three component, hot wire probe to measure velocity, and with a wing to measure the rolling moment that would be induced on a following aircraft. The experimental techniques are described herein, and the measured velocity and rolling moments are presented, along with some comparisons with the applicable theories.
Rossow, V. J.↗
Low-Thermal-Stress Structural Joints For Dissimilar Materials
Structural joint developed for attachment of hypersonic control surface to aircraft wing structure. Transmits large torque loads from composite control surface and torque tube to wing structure through metallic attachment lug and collar. Torque load transmitted from tube to collar by series of radially oriented cleats. Bearing surfaces of cleats plane passing through center-line of torque tube. Such joints accommodate differential thermal growth between parts of dissimilar materials. Potential for application to high-temperature structural joints associated with hypervelocity vehicles.
Matza, Edward C.↗
Comparison of vortex lattice predicted forces with wind tunnel experiments for the F-4E(CCV) airplane with a closely coupled canard
The F-4E (CCV) wind tunnel model with closely coupled canard control surfaces was analyzed by means of a version of a vortex lattice program that included the effects of nonlinear leading edge or side edge vortex lift on as many as four individual planforms. The results were compared with experimental data from wind tunnel tests of a 5% scale model tested at a Mach number M = 0.6. They indicated that a nonlinear vortex lift developed on the side edges due to tip vortices, but did not appear to develop on the leading edges within the range of angles of attack that were studied. Instead, substantial leading edge thrust was developed on the lifting surfaces. A configuration buildup illustrated the mutual interference between the wing and control surfaces. On the configuration studied, addition of the wing increased the loading on the canard, but the additional load on the canard due to adding the stabilator was small.
Gross, L. W.↗
Scanning laser-velocimeter surveys and analysis of multiple vortex wakes of an aircraft
A laser velocimeter capable of rapidly scanning a flow field while simultaneously sensing two components of the velocity was used to measure the vertical and streamwise velocity structure 1.5 spans downstream in the wake of a model typical of a large subsonic transport (Boeing 747). This flow field was modeled by a superposition of axisymmetric vortices with finite cores. This theoretical model was found to agree with the measured velocities everywhere except where two vortices were in close proximity. Vortex strengths derived from the span loading on the wing as predicted by vortex-lattice theory also agree with the present measurements. The axisymmetric vortex model used herein is a useful tool for analytically investigating the vortex wakes of aircraft.
Corsiglia, V. R.↗
Augmentation of maneuver performance by spanwise blowing
A generalized wind tunnel model was tested to investigate new component concepts utilizing spanwise blowing to provide improved maneuver characteristics for advanced fighter aircraft. Primary emphasis was placed on high angle of attack performance, stability, and control at subsonic speeds. Spanwise blowing on a 44 deg swept trapezoidal wing resulted in leading edge vortex enhancement with subsequent large vortex-induced lift increments and drag polar improvements at the higher angles of attack. Small deflections of a leading edge flap delayed these lift and drag benefits to higher angles of attack. In addition, blowing was more effective at higher Mach numbers. Spanwise blowing in conjunction with a deflected trailing edge flap resulted in lift and drag benefits that exceeded the summation of the effects of each high lift device acting alone. Asymmetric blowing was an effective lateral control device at the higher angles of attack. Spanwise blowing on the wing reduced horizontal tail loading and improved the lateral-directional stability characteristics of a wing-horizontal tail-vertical tail configuration.
Erickson, G. E.↗
Airframe technology for energy efficient transport aircraft
NASA has initiated a comprehensive Aircraft Energy Efficiency Program which is concerned with the development of approaches for reducing fuel consumption in new aircraft of the 1980-2000 time period. A review is presented of the airframe technologies selected for emphasis in the NASA program, taking into account an evaluation of their potential for reducing transport direct operating costs through fuel efficiency. Attention is given to the importance of fuel efficiency, the impact of advanced technology, advanced composite structures, the NASA composite primary structures program, advanced aerodynamics and active controls, supercritical wing geometry, active load and flutter control, and aspects of laminar flow control.
Leonard, R. W.↗
Ground vibration test of F-16 airplane with initial decoupler pylon
A ground vibration test was conducted on an F-16 airplane loaded on each wing with a 370-gal tank mounted on a standard pylon, a GBU-8 store mounted on a decoupler pylon, and an AIM-9J missile mounted on a wing-tip launcher. The decoupler pylon is a passive wing/store flutter-suppression device. The test was conducted prior to initial flight tests to determine the modal frequencies, mode shapes, and structural damping coefficients. The data presented include frequency response plots, force effect plots, and limited mode shape data.
Cazier, F. W., Jr.↗
Ground vibration test of an F-16 airplane with modified decoupler pylons
The decoupler pylon is a passive wing/store flutter suppression device. It was modified to reduce friction following initial flight tests. A ground vibration test was conducted on an F-16 aircraft loaded on each wing with a one-half-full (center bay empty) 370-gallon fuel tank mounted on a standard pylon, a GBU-8 store mounted on the decoupler pylon, and an AIM-9J missile mounted on a wingtip launcher. The test was conducted prior to flight tests with the modified pylon to determine modal frequencies, mode shapes, and structural damping coefficients. Data presented include frequency response plots, mode shape plots, and limited force-effect plots.
Cazier, F. W., Jr..↗
Applied transonics at Grumman
A review of several applications of Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) to various aspects of aerodynamic design recently carried out at Grumman is presented. The emphasis is placed on project-oriented applications where the ease of use of the methods and short start-to-completion times are required. Applications cover transonic wing design/optimization, wing mounted stores load prediction, transonic buffet alleviation, fuselage loads estimation, and compact offset diffuser design for advanced aircraft configurations. Computational methods employed include extended transonic small disturbance (automatic grid embedding) formulation for analysis/design/optimization and a thin layer Navier-Stokes formulation for both external and internal flow analyses.
Davis, W. H.↗
NASTRAN analysis for the Airmass Sunburst model 'C' Ultralight Aircraft
The purpose of this project was to create a three dimensional NASTRAN model of the Airmass Sunburst Ultralight comparable to one made for finite element analysis. A two dimensional sample problem will be calculated by hand and by NASTRAN to make sure that NASTRAN finds similar results. A three dimensional model, similar to the one analyzed by the finite element program, will be run on NASTRAN. A comparison will be done between the NASTRAN results and the finite element program results. This study will deal mainly with the aerodynamic loads on the wing and surrounding support structure at an attack angle of 10 degrees.
Verbestel, John↗