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At least 703 records · Page 39
All sourcesNASA NTRSDOE OSTI
DOE OSTI2019

Microstructure and Mechanical Properties of Exothermic-Reaction-Assisted Friction-Stir-Welded Nickel-Aluminum Bronze Alloy

In the present work, nickel-aluminum bronze alloy is joined using conventional friction stir welding (CFSW) and thermite heat-assisted friction stir welding (THAFSW). In this experiment, preheating technology was utilized using the thermite reaction of Al-CuO powder. A substantial rise in temperature was observed during THAFSW which is beneficial to the eliminations of tunnel defect. In THAFSW, a large amount of α-phase was observed from the top to the center in stir zone as a result of the rise in temperature. Transverse tensile strength of the THAFSW and CFSW was improved by 27 and 14%, respectively, in comparison with base metal tensile strength. A higher microhardness values observed at the bottom of the stir zone in the THAFSW, while this was seen higher in the surface zone and the center zone in the case of CFSW. Tool wear was reduced during the THAFSW process.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2019

Numerical Simulation of Residual Stresses in Multipass Gas Metal Arc-Welded Joints of Thick Aluminum Alloy Plates

Numerical simulation was utilized to investigate the residual stresses in the multipass gas metal arc-welded joints of high-strength Al-Zn-Mg alloy plates. In order to elevate the reliability of numerical simulation, the heat source model, parameters characterizing the thermal and mechanical properties, boundary conditions, material constitutive model and finite element meshing were discussed in detail. As a novelty of this paper, the modified Arrhenius constitutive equation of the base material and the filled material was obtained according to the results of high-temperature tensile tests. Distributions of stress on the upper and bottom surface of the joint were obtained based on numerical simulation. Special attention was paid to the evolutions of local residual stress on the bottom surface of the joint, and it’s found that residual stresses on the bottom surface of the joint were almost unchanged after the weld seam approached a certain thickness. Blind-hole method and x-ray method were adopted to detect the residual stresses on the surfaces to verify the accuracy of the results obtained by numerical simulation.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2019

Numerical Simulation of Residual Stress for Laser Welding of Ti-6Al-4V Alloy Considering Solid-State Phase Transformation

In the present work, a thermal-metallurgical-mechanical model which considered the influence of phase transformation was used to predict the residual stress field of Ti-6Al-4V after laser welding. In this model, the Johnson–Mehl–Avrami equation was used to predict diffusional solid-state phase transformations: α phase to β phase during heating and β phase to α phase during cooling. The Koistinen–Marburger equation was used to predict diffusionless solid-state phase transformation of β phase to martensite during cooling. The properties of material were obtained using a mixing rule based on the phase fraction and the property of each pure phase. By applying this model, the effect of solid-state phase transformations of Ti-6Al-4V alloy on temperature field and stress field during laser welding was considered in the simulation. In addition, experiments were carried out for comparison, which significantly verified the accuracy of the applied model.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2019

Butt Laser Welding–Brazing of AZ31 Mg to Nickel-Coated Ti-6Al-4V

Mg and Ti alloy are hard to be bonded due to their huge discrepancy in physical and metallurgical characteristics. As an intermediate element, Ni is feasible for joining of Mg and Ti. The interfacial microstructure and mechanical properties of laser-welded–brazed AZ31 Mg/Ti-6Al-4V joints in butt configuration were investigated with different thicknesses of electrodeposited Ni interlayer. The interfacial reaction products evolved from an ultra-thin Ti{sub 3}Al layer to Ti{sub 2}Ni layer mingled with Ti{sub 3}Al, and more Mg{sub 3}AlNi{sub 2} compounds were produced in the fusion zone (FZ) as Ni coating thickness increased. Slag inclusions and cracks were observed in interfacial layer when coating thickness exceeded 2.5 μm. The quantity of Mg{sub 3}AlNi{sub 2} and the thickness of interfacial layer decreased from the top to bottom of groove of the same joint owing to high thermal gradient during laser welding. The chemical potential of Al and Ni indicated that Al-Ti reaction product was produced more easily than Ni-Ti in 0.001Mg-(Ni-Al-Ti) system. The thermodynamic calculation results of Gibbs free energy suggested the preferential formation Ti-Al phase and Ti-Ni phase along the interface while the Mg-Al-Ni ternary phase in the FZ. Fracture loads of joints increased first followed by a decline with the increase in coating thickness. The joint fractured at the Mg base metal, reaching a maximum value of 3900 N with the Ni coating thickness of 1.5 μm. In the case of using thinner or thicker Ni coating, crack propagated along the interface due to the insufficient metallurgical bonding or defects existed in the interfacial layer. The characteristic of fracture surface changed from the tear ridges and terraces to river pattern when interfacial failure occurred.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2019

Effect of a Zinc Interlayer on a Cu/Al Lap Joint in Ultrasound-Assisted Friction Stir Welding

This study proposes a welding process, ultrasound-assisted friction stir welding of dissimilar Al/Cu metals. Zinc foil is melted using the heat generated by a pinless stirring tool, and the molten intermediate layer is stirred by ultrasonic cavitation to achieve an effective connection. The metallurgical reaction behavior of the joint under the action of the sound field was studied, and the effects of different microstructures on the joint performance were analyzed. Specifically, the following observations were reported in this study: (1) When ultrasound assistance was used, the cavitation effect changed the brittle intermetallic compounds of Al{sub 2}Cu from a continuous distribution to a block distribution, and the mechanical properties of the joint were greatly improved; (2) the effects of the thickness of the zinc were also determined. The results showed that the highest shear tensile force was obtained when the thickness of the zinc foil was 0.2 mm. When the thickness was 0.3 mm, the ultrasound effect was weakened. The copper-side interface generated a zigzag-shaped Al{sub 4.2}Cu{sub 3.2}Zn{sub 0.7} layer with a thickness of 3.4 μm and had a continuous distribution. Increasing the thickness of the zinc to 0.5 mm, however, drastically decreased the mechanical properties of the joint due to incomplete melting of the zinc layer.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2019

Effects of Postweld Heat Treatment on Microstructure and Properties of Laser-Welded Ti-24Al-15Nb Alloy Joint

The microstructure evolution and mechanical properties of laser-welded joints of Ti-24Al-15Nb alloy under different postweld heat treatment (PWHT) conditions were systematically investigated. The results show that the microstructure is very sensitive to PWHT temperatures. The weld zone consists of B2 and O phases after PWHT. With the PWHT temperatures increasing from 850 to 1000 °C, the amount of O phase decreases gradually, while the grains of O precipitates become coarser. After PWHT, there are some thin acicular O precipitates in heat-affected zone (HAZ), and the decomposition of α{sub 2}-phase caused by niobium diffusion can be observed in the HAZ. The PWHT can significantly increase the microhardness of joints, resulting from O phase precipitation hardening effect. The tensile strength and elongation of joints can be remarkably improved after PWHT, which was closely related to the strengthening effect of O precipitates and slip transmission between O and B2 phases. In addition, the results indicate that the best mechanical properties can be achieved only when the number and size of O phase and B2 phase are the best match.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2024

Neutron Diffraction Residual Stress Study of a AA2219-T87 Self-Reacting Friction Stir Weld

2219-T87 is a precipitation hardenable aluminum-copper alloy which sees wide use in structural aerospace components. Thick panels of this alloy are joined via self-reacting friction welding (SRFSW); however, this thermomechanical process can result in significant loss of the alloy’s strengthening precipitates and large residual stresses which are detrimental to mechanical behavior and performance. High-resolution maps of the residual strain and stress states along the normal, transverse, and longitudinal directions of 2219-T87 SRFSW were obtained using neutron diffraction measurements. Residual stress had the highest tensile value in the heat-affected zone (HAZ) and the largest compressive stress in the base metal region of the normal and transverse directions. Line profile residual stress distributions displayed an “M”-shaped distribution in each direction with the longitudinal direction being the most pronounced while 2D residual stresses displayed an hourglass-shaped pattern. Further, average maximal longitudinal residual stress values ranged from 60.6 to 85.6% of yield. Microhardness testing across the transverse weld section produced a “V”-shaped curve with slight hardness recovery in the stir zone. Maximal and minimal microhardness values were observed in the base metal (154 HV) and thermomechanically affected zone (82 HV), respectively. Microstructural evolution was recorded using optical microscopy and showed decreasing grain size from the HAZ to the stir zone.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2015

Friction Stir Welding and Processing

With nearly twenty years of international research and collaboration in friction stir welding (FSW) and processing industrial applications have spread into nearly every feasible market. Currently applications exist in aerospace, railway, automotive, personal computers, technology, marine, cutlery, construction, as well as several other markets. Implementation of FSW has demonstrated diverse opportunities ranging from enabling new materials to reducing the production costs of current welding technologies by enabling condensed packaging solutions for traditional fabrication and assembly. TMS has sponsored focused instruction and communication in this technology area for more than fifteen years, with leadership from the Shaping and Forming Committee, which organizes a biannual symposium each odd year at the annual meeting. A focused publication produced from each of these symposia now comprises eight volumes detailing the primary research and development activities in this area over the last two decades. The articles assembled herein focus on both recent developments and technology reviews of several key markets from international experts in this area.

friction stir welding↗
DOE OSTI2016

Predicting mesoscale microstructural evolution in electron beam welding

Using the kinetic Monte Carlo simulator, Stochastic Parallel PARticle Kinetic Simulator, from Sandia National Laboratories, a user routine has been developed to simulate mesoscale predictions of a grain structure near a moving heat source. Here, we demonstrate the use of this user routine to produce voxelized, synthetic, three-dimensional microstructures for electron-beam welding by comparing them with experimentally produced microstructures. When simulation input parameters are matched to experimental process parameters, qualitative and quantitative agreement for both grain size and grain morphology are achieved. The method is capable of simulating both single- and multipass welds. As a result, the simulations provide an opportunity for not only accelerated design but also the integration of simulation and experiments in design such that simulations can receive parameter bounds from experiments and, in turn, provide predictions of a resultant microstructure.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2021

Tool-workpiece stick-slip conditions and their effects on torque and heat generation rate in the friction stir welding

Friction stir welding (FSW) has found increased applications in automotive and aerospace industries due to its advantages of solid-state bonding, no fusion and melting, and versatility in various working conditions and material combinations. However, the relationship among processing parameters, material properties, and bonding extent and fidelity remains largely empirical, primarily because of the lack of the mechanistic understanding of the tool-workpiece frictional behavior that affects our subsequent understanding of microstructural evolution and interface bonding formation. While the tool-workpiece stick-slip condition is believed to dictate the resulting torque and heat generation rate during the welding process, it remains rare and elusive to conduct a quantitative experimental measurement of such interfacial field. On the other hand, numerical simulations based on Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) rely on ad hoc assumptions of interfacial pressure and shear-stress conditions, but predictions can only be validated via the medium- and far-range temperature field which is known to be insensitive to the interfacial frictional behavior. This work first presents a comparison among two CFD-based simulation methodologies and the Coupled Eulerian Lagrangian (CEL) model in finite element method, the last of which uses the Coulomb friction so that the stick-slip is naturally developed. Based on the Hill-Bower similarity relationship in the contact analysis, an analytical model is developed here to prove why a constant stick-slip fraction will be developed in the steady state, to correlate the stick-slip fraction to processing parameters such as the tool spin rate, and further to derive dimensionless functions for torque and heat-generation-rate predictions. Pros and cons of various numerical approaches in predicting stick-slip are discussed, and our analytical model has been found to agree well with our numerical simulation and literature experimental results. These analyses provide the critical strain-rate and temperature fields that are needed for the bonding analysis in our future work.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2020

Direct observation of pore formation mechanisms during LPBF additive manufacturing process and high energy density laser welding

Laser powder bed fusion (LPBF) is a 3D printing technology that can print parts with complex geometries that are unachievable by conventional manufacturing technologies. However, pores formed during the printing process impair the mechanical performance of the printed parts, severely hindering their widespread application. Here, we report six pore formation mechanisms that were observed during the LPBF process. Our results in this study reconfirm three pore formation mechanisms - keyhole induced pores, pore formation from feedstock powder and pore formation along the melting boundary during laser melting from vaporization of a volatile substance or an expansion of a tiny trapped gas. We also observe three new pore formation mechanisms: (1) pore trapped by surface fluctuation, (2) pore formation due to depression zone fluctuation when the depression zone is shallow and (3) pore formation from a crack. The results presented here provide direct evidence and insight into pore formation mechanisms during the LPBF process, which may guide the development of pore elimination/mitigation approaches. Since certain laser processing conditions studied here are similar to the situations in high energy density laser welding, the results presented here also have implications for laser welding.

42 ENGINEERING↗
DOE OSTI2021

Optimization of the microstructure and mechanical properties of electron beam welded high-strength medium-entropy alloy (NiCoCr) 94 Al 3 Ti 3

For this work, the weldability and effects of subsequent heat treatment on the microstructure and mechanical properties of the medium-entropy alloy (MEA) (NiCoCr) 94 Al 3 Ti 3 have been explored using electron beam welding (EBW). It was found that EBW joints consist of a supersaturated f.c.c. matrix with coarse, asymmetric columnar grains (17.7–24 μm). The fraction of twins and Σ3 n CSL boundaries in weld joints was only 10% of that in the base metal, a value which increased to 30% after aging at 800 °C. The aging also led to improvements in the hardness, tensile strength, and work hardening rate, a result of the precipitation of a high volume fraction (0.29–0.33) of ultrafine (15–17.4 nm dia.) coherent spherical L1 2 -structured particles. The contributions of the L1 2 nanoparticles and Hall-Petch strengthening to the yield strength were estimated to be 537–573 MPa and 105–123 MPa, respectively. The MEA shows excellent weldability and, after aging, good strength (YS~1098 MPa, UTS~1368 MPa) and elongation to failure (~11%) by ductile fracture.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2019

Adaptive relay autotuning under static and non-static disturbances with application to friction stir welding

When a traditional relay feedback test is biased, asymmetry is induced, erroneous system identification occurs, and the test may stop oscillating. Adaptive methods which restore symmetry to the relay test are developed, and additional methods are presented to detect and recover from a non-oscillation condition. This is demonstrated both in simulation and in a process with significant transients and disturbances - friction stir welding (FSW). In testing, it is shown that the adaptive method is able to restore symmetry even in the presence of severe and changing disturbances, including after the weld plunge where temperature gradients change rapidly. Finally, these improvements enable system identification of systems such as FSW in a more robust and accurate manner.

42 ENGINEERING↗
DOE OSTI2020

Multi-scale characterization and simulation of impact welding between immiscible Mg/steel alloys

Vaporizing foil actuator spot welding method is used in this paper to join magnesium alloy AZ31 and uncoated high-strength steel DP590, which are typically considered as un-weldable due to their high physical property disparities, low mutual solubility, and the lack of any intermetallic phases. Characterization results from scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and high-resolution transmission electron microscopy (HRTEM) of the weld interface indicate that the impact creates an Mg nanocrystalline interlayer with abundant Fe particles. The interlayer exhibits intact bonding with both DP590 and AZ31 substrates. To investigate the fundamental bond formation mechanisms at the interface, a finite element (FE)-based process simulation is first performed to calculate the local temperature and deformation at the interface under the given macroscopic experimental condition. Finally, taking the FE results at the interface as inputs, molecular dynamics (MD) simulations are conducted to study the interlayer formation at the Mg/Fe interface during the impact and cooling. The results found a high velocity shearing-induced mechanical mixing mechanism that mixes Mg/Fe atoms at the interface and creates the interlayer, leading to the metallurgical bond between Mg/steel alloys.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2018

Effect of friction stir welding and self-ion irradiation on dispersoid evolution in oxide dispersion strengthened steel MA956 up to 25 dpa

Here, the effect of ion irradiation on the microstructure of oxide dispersion strengthened (ODS) MA956 steel, before and after friction stir welding (FSW), was studied. Both the base material (BM) and welded stir zone (SZ) were irradiated with 5 MeV Fe ++ ions at 450 °C up to 25 displacements per atom (dpa). Characterization was performed using scanning transmission electron microscopy (STEM) and atom probe tomography (APT), with particular emphasis on the Y—Al—O dispersoid characteristics and dislocation microstructures. After irradiation, the dispersoids in the BM increased in diameter and decreased in number density, which was explained by an Ostwald ripening mechanism. FSW caused significant coarsening and agglomeration of the dispersoids. After irradiation, both the diameter and number density of the SZ dispersoids increased, which was explained by an irradiation-enhanced diffusion mechanism. Dislocation loop and network behavior was also characterized and large dislocation loops of ≈20 nm diameter formed by 1 dpa in both the BM and SZ samples, whereas the network density remained nearly constant with irradiation.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2012

The formation mechanisms of interlocked microstructures in low-carbon high-strength steel weld metals

Microstructural features and the formation mechanisms of interlocked microstructures of acicular ferrite in a low-carbon high-strength steel weld metal were investigated by means of computer-aided three-dimensional reconstruction technique and electron backscattered diffraction analysis. Multiple nucleation on inclusions, sympathetic nucleation or repeated nucleation, hard impingement, mutual intersection, and fixed orientation relationships of acicular ferrite grains were observed. They were all responsible for the formation of interlocked microstructures in the weld metal. During the process of isothermal transformation, the pre-formed acicular ferrite laths or plates partitioned austenite grains into many small and separate regions, and the growth of later formed acicular ferrite grains was confined in these small regions. Thus, the crystallographic grain size became smaller with the increasing holding time. Highlights: Black-Right-Pointing-Pointer Acicular ferrite is formed by multiple nucleation and sympathetic nucleation. Black-Right-Pointing-Pointer Hard impingement and intersection of ferrite grains occur at later stages. Black-Right-Pointing-Pointer The pre-formed ferrite laths partition austenite grains into smaller regions. Black-Right-Pointing-Pointer The growth of later formed ferrite grains is confined in the smaller regions.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2012

Joining aluminum to titanium alloy by friction stir lap welding with cutting pin

Aluminum 1060 and titanium alloy Ti-6Al-4V plates were lap joined by friction stir welding. A cutting pin of rotary burr made of tungsten carbide was employed. The microstructures of the joining interface were observed by scanning electron microscopy. Joint strength was evaluated by a tensile shear test. During the welding process, the surface layer of the titanium plate was cut off by the pin, and intensively mixed with aluminum situated on the titanium plate. The microstructures analysis showed that a visible swirl-like mixed region existed at the interface. In this region, the Al metal, Ti metal and the mixed layer of them were all presented. The ultimate tensile shear strength of joint reached 100% of 1060Al that underwent thermal cycle provided by the shoulder. - Highlights: Black-Right-Pointing-Pointer FSW with cutting pin was successfully employed to form Al/Ti lap joint. Black-Right-Pointing-Pointer Swirl-like structures formed due to mechanical mixing were found at the interface. Black-Right-Pointing-Pointer High-strength joints fractured at Al suffered thermal cycle were produced.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2014

Microstructural characterization of an SA508–309L/308L–316L domestic dissimilar metal welded safe-end joint

The microstructure of an SA508–309L/308L–316L domestic dissimilar metal welded safe-end joint was characterized in this work by optical microscopy, scanning electron microscopy (with electron back scattering diffraction) and micro-hardness testing. Epitaxial growth and competitive growth are evident in the 308L–316L fusion boundary regions. A martensite layer, carbon-depleted zones, and type-II and type-I boundaries are found in the SA508–309L fusion boundary regions, while only martensite and austenite mixed zones are observed in the SA508–308L fusion boundary regions. The microstructure near the fusion boundary and the microstructure transition in the SA508 heat affected zone are quite complex. Both for SA508–309L/308L and 308L–316L, the highest residual strain is located on the outside of the weldment. The residual strain and the grain boundary character distribution change with increasing distance from the fusion boundary in the heat affected zone of 316L. Micro-hardness measurements also reveal non-uniform mechanical properties across the weldment. - Highlights: • The microstructure of SA508 HAZ, especially near the FB, is very complex. • The outside of the dissimilar metal welded joint has the highest residual. • The micro-hardness distributions along the DMWJ are non-uniform.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗