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NASA NTRS2012

Towards an Imaging Mid-Infrared Heterodyne Spectrometer

We are developing a concept for a compact, low-mass, low-power, mid-infrared (MIR; 5- 12 microns) imaging heterodyne spectrometer that incorporates fiber optic coupling, Quantum Cascade Laser (QCL) local oscillator, photomixer array, and Radio Frequency Software Defined Readout (RFSDR) for spectral analysis. Planetary Decadal Surveys have highlighted the need for miniaturized, robust, low-mass, and minimal power remote sensing technologies for flight missions. The drive for miniaturization of remote sensing spectroscopy and radiometry techniques has been a continuing process. The advent of MIR fibers, and MEMS techniques for producing waveguides has proven to be an important recent advancement for miniaturization of infrared spectrometers. In conjunction with well-established photonics techniques, the miniaturization of spectrometers is transitioning from classic free space optical systems to waveguide/fiber-based structures for light transport and producing interference effects. By their very nature, these new devices are compact and lightweight. Mercury-Cadmium-Telluride (MCT) and Quantum Well Infrared Photodiodes (QWIP) arrays for heterodyne applications are also being developed. Bulky electronics is another barrier that precluded the extension of heterodyne systems into imaging applications, and our RFSDR will address this aspect.

Hewagama, T.↗

NASA NTRS1990

Development of microchannel plates in advanced wind-tunnel instrumentation

Microchannel plate (MCP) electron multiplier dynamic range has been increased 3 to 4 orders of magnitude at ambient temperatures, through enhanced input count rate capability and reduced background or 'dark' noise. The previous upper limit of roughly 10(exp 7) - 10(exp 8) cm(exp -2)s(exp -1) at ambient has been extended to levels approach 10(exp 10) cm(exp -2)s(exp -1) under continuous dc operation. The lower limit, previously set by an irreducible background component (approximately 0.6 cm(exp -2)s(exp -1)), has been lowered to the cosmic ray limit of .01 cm(exp -2)s(exp -1). The high end improvement was achieved by conductively cooling a very low resistance MCP by bonding it to a heat sink, while maintaining pulse-counting operation with multianode readouts. The low-end improvement was achieved by removing all radioisotopes from the MCP matrix glass. The detectors will benefit optical and mass spectrometry, flow visualization, plasma diagnostics, magnetometry, and other high signal flux applications. Very low MCP background noise will benefit X-ray and UV astronomy, medical imaging, trace isotope mass spectrometry, and other applications where the signal flux is often extremely low.

Feller, W. Bruce↗

NASA NTRS2007

Kilopixel Pop-Up Bolometer Arrays for the Atacama Cosmology Telescope

The recently deployed Atacama Cosmology Telescope (ACT) anticipates first light on its kilopixel array of close-packed transition-edge-sensor bolometers in November of 2007. The instrument will represent a full implementation of the next-generation, large format arrays for millimeter wave astronomy that use superconducting electronics and detectors. Achieving the practical construction of such an array is a significant step toward producing advanced detector arrays for future SOFIA instruments. We review the design considerations for the detector array produced for the ACT instrument. The first light imager consists of 32 separately instrumented 32-channel pop-up bolometer arrays (to create a 32x32 filled array of mm-wave sensors). Each array is instrumented with a 32-channel bias resistor array, Nyquist filter array, and time-division SQUID multiplexer. Each component needed to be produced in relatively large quantities with suitable uniformity to meet tolerances for array operation. An optical design was chosen to maximize absorption at the focal plane while mitigating reflections and stray light. The pop-up geometry (previously implemented with semiconducting detectors and readout on the SHARC II and HAWC instruments) enabled straightforward interface of the superconducting bias and readout circuit with the 2D array of superconducting bolometers. The array construction program balanced fabrication challenges with assembly challenges to deliver the instrument in a timely fashion. We present some of the results of the array build and characterization of its performance.

Chervenak, J. A.↗

DOE OSTI2020

Charge collection study with the ATLAS ITk prototype silicon strip sensors ATLAS17LS

The inner tracker of the ATLAS detector is scheduled to be replaced by a completely new silicon-based inner tracker (ITk) for the Phase-II of the CERN LHC (HL-LHC). The silicon strip detector covers the volume 40 < R < 100 cm in the radial and | z | < 300 cm in the longitudinal directions. The silicon sensors for the detector will be fabricated using the n + -on-p 6-inch wafer technology, for a total of 22,000 wafers. Here, intensive studies were carried out on the final prototype sensors ATLAS17LS fabricated by Hamamatsu Photonics (HPK). The charge collection properties were examined using penetrating 90 Sr β -rays and the ALIBAVA fast readout system for the miniature sensors of 1 cm × 1 cm in area. The samples were irradiated by protons in the 27 MeV Birmingham Cyclotron, the 70 MeV CYRIC at Tohoku University, and the 24 GeV CERN-PS, and by neutrons at Ljubljana TRIGA reactor for fluence values up to 2 × 10 15 n eq /cm 2 . The change in the charge collection with fluence was found to be similar to the previous prototype ATLAS12, and acceptable for the ITk. Sensors with two active thicknesses, 300 μ m (standard) and 240 μ m (thin), were compared and the difference in the charge collection was observed to be small for bias voltages up to 500 V. Some samples were also irradiated with gamma radiation up to 2 MGy, and the full depletion voltage was found to decrease with the dose. This was caused by the Compton electrons due to the 60 Co gamma radiation. To summarize, the design of the ATLAS17LS and technology for its fabrication have been verified for implementation in the ITk. We are in the stage of sensor pre-production with the first sensors already delivered in January of 2020.

46 INSTRUMENTATION RELATED TO NUCLEAR SCIENCE AND ↗

NASA NTRS2006

Multiplexing Transducers Based on Tunnel-Diode Oscillators

Multiplexing and differential transducers based on tunnel-diode oscillators (TDOs) would be developed, according to a proposal, for operation at very low and/or widely varying temperatures in applications that involve requirements to minimize the power and mass of transducer electronic circuitry. It has been known since 1975 that TDOs are useful for making high-resolution (of the order of 10(exp -9)) measurements at low temperatures. Since that time, TDO transducers have been found to offer the following additional advantages, which the present proposal is intended to exploit: TDO transducers can operate at temperatures ranging from 1 K to about 400 K. Most electronic components other than tunnel diodes do not operate over such a wide temperature range. TDO transducers can be made to operate at very low power - typically, <1 mW. Inasmuch as the response of a TDO transducer is a small change in an arbitrarily set oscillation frequency, the outputs of many TDOs operating at sufficiently different set frequencies can be multiplexed through a single wire. Inasmuch as frequencies can be easily subtracted by means of mixing circuitry, one can easily use two TDOs to make differential measurements. Differential measurements are generally more precise and less susceptible to environmental variations than are absolute measurements. TDO transducers are tolerant to ionizing radiation. Ultimately, the response of a TDO transducer is measured by use of a frequency counter. Because frequency counting can be easily implemented by use of clock signals available from most microprocessors, it is not necessary to incorporate additional readout circuitry that would, if included, add to the mass and power consumption of the transducer circuitry. In one example of many potential variations on the basic theme of the proposal, the figure schematically depicts a conceptual differential-pressure transducer containing a symmetrical pair of TDOs. The differential pressure would be exerted on an electrically conductive and grounded diaphragm, which, at zero differential pressure, would nominally be sprung to a middle position between two capacitor plates that would be parts of the two TDOs. The frequencies of the two TDOs would vary in opposite directions as variations in differential pressure bent the diaphragm away from one capacitor plate and toward the other. The outputs of the TDOs would be mixed and lowpass filtered to obtain a signal at the difference between the frequencies of the two TDOs. The difference frequency would be measured by a frequency counter and converted to differential pressure by a computer.

Chui, Talso↗

DOE OSTI2023

Entangled Photon Pair Source Demonstrator Using the Quantum Instrumentation Control Kit System

Here, we report the first demonstration of using the Quantum Instrumentation and Control Kit (QICK) system on RFSoC-FPGA technology to drive the electro-optic intensity modulator that generate time-bin entangled photon pairs and to detect the photon signals. With the QICK system, we achieve high levels of performance metrics including coincidence-to-accidental ratio exceeding 150, and entanglement visibility exceeding 95%, consistent with performance metrics achieved using conventional waveform generators. We also demonstrate simultaneous detector readout using the digitization functional of QICK, achieving internal system synchronization time resolution of 3.2 ps. The work reported in this paper represents an explicit demonstration of the feasibility for replacing commercial waveform generators and time taggers with RFSoC-FPGA technology in the operation of a quantum network, representing a cost reduction of more than an order of magnitude.

46 INSTRUMENTATION RELATED TO NUCLEAR SCIENCE AND ↗

NASA NTRS2011

The Advanced Energetic Pair Telescope (AdEPT}: A Future Medium-Energy Gamma-Ray Balloon (and Explorer?) Mission

Gamma-ray astrophysics probes the highest energy, exotic phenomena in astrophysics. In the medium-energy regime, 0.1-200 MeV, many astrophysical objects exhibit unique and transitory behavior such as the transition from electron dominated to hadron dominated processes, spectral breaks, bursts, and flares. Medium-energy gamma-ray imaging however, continues to be a major challenge particularly because of high background, low effective area, and low source intensities. The sensitivity and angular resolution required to address these challenges requires a leap in technology. The Advance Energetic Pair Telescope (AdEPT) being developed at GSFC is designed to image gamma rays above 5 MeV via pair production with angular resolution of 1-10 deg. In addition AdEPT will, for the first time, provide high polarization sensitivity in this energy range. This performance is achieved by reducing the effective area in favor of enhanced angular resolution through the use of a low-density gaseous conversion medium. AdEPT is based on the Three-Dimensional Track Imager (3-DTI) technology that combines a large volume Negative Ion Time Projection Chamber (NITPC) with 2-D Micro-Well Detector (MWD) readout. I will review the major science topics addressable with medium-energy gamma-rays and discuss the current status of the AdEPT technology, a proposed balloon instrument, and the design of a future satellite mission.

Hunter, Stanley D.↗

DOE OSTI2024

AstroPix4 — a novel HV-CMOS sensor developed for space based experiments

For the proposed space based gamma-ray observatory All-sky Medium-Energy Gamma-ray Observatory eXplorer (AMEGO-X), a silicon tracker based on a novel High Voltage-CMOS (HV-CMOS) sensor called AstroPix, is currently being developed. Preliminary measurements with the first full reticle prototype AstroPix3 show that the power target of 1.5 mW/cm 2 can currently not be reached due to the digital consumption of 3.08 mW/cm 2 , while the analog power consumption of 1.04 mW/cm 2 and a break down voltage of over 350 V look promising. Based on these results, the design changes in AstroPix4, submitted in May 2023, are presented, containing changes to the time stamp generation and readout architecture. A digital power consumption below 0.25 mW/cm 2 is expected by removing the fast 200 MHz clock used to measure the time-over-threshold (ToT) and an LVDS receiver. A maximum resolution of 3.125 ns for time-of-arrival (ToA) and ToT is reached by adding per-pixel Flash-Time-to-Digital Converter (TDCs) controlled by a global delay-locked loop (DLL).

47 OTHER INSTRUMENTATION↗

DOE OSTI2024

Studies of Cherenkov photon production in PbF 2 crystals using proton beams at Fermilab

Future lepton colliders such as the FCC-ee, CEPC, ILC, or a muon collider will collect large data samples that allow precision physics studies with unprecedented accuracy, especially when the data is collected by innovative state-of-the-art detectors. An electromagnetic calorimeter based on scintillating crystals, designed to separately record Cherenkov and scintillation light, can achieve precision measurements of electrons and photons without sacrificing jet energy resolution, given adequate light collection efficiency and separation. This paper presents initial measurements from a program aimed at developing such a calorimeter system for future colliders. Finally, we focus on using PbF 2 crystals to enhance the understanding of Cherenkov light collection, marking the first step in this endeavor.

46 INSTRUMENTATION RELATED TO NUCLEAR SCIENCE AND ↗

NASA NTRS2004

Coding for Communication Channels with Dead-Time Constraints

Coding schemes have been designed and investigated specifically for optical and electronic data-communication channels in which information is conveyed via pulse-position modulation (PPM) subject to dead-time constraints. These schemes involve the use of error-correcting codes concatenated with codes denoted constrained codes. These codes are decoded using an interactive method. In pulse-position modulation, time is partitioned into frames of Mslots of equal duration. Each frame contains one pulsed slot (all others are non-pulsed). For a given channel, the dead-time constraints are defined as a maximum and a minimum on the allowable time between pulses. For example, if a Q-switched laser is used to transmit the pulses, then the minimum allowable dead time is the time needed to recharge the laser for the next pulse. In the case of bits recorded on a magnetic medium, the minimum allowable time between pulses depends on the recording/playback speed and the minimum distance between pulses needed to prevent interference between adjacent bits during readout. The maximum allowable dead time for a given channel is the maximum time for which it is possible to satisfy the requirement to synchronize slots. In mathematical shorthand, the dead-time constraints for a given channel are represented by the pair of integers (d,k), where d is the minimum allowable number of zeroes between ones and k is the maximum allowable number of zeroes between ones. A system of the type to which the present schemes apply is represented by a binary- input, real-valued-output channel model illustrated in the figure. At the transmitting end, information bits are first encoded by use of an error-correcting code, then further encoded by use of a constrained code. Several constrained codes for channels subject to constraints of (d,infinity) have been investigated theoretically and computationally. The baseline codes chosen for purposes of comparison were simple PPM codes characterized by M-slot PPM frames separated by d-slot dead times.

Moision, Bruce↗

NASA NTRS2003

Development of a Cryogen-Free Continuous ADR for the Constellation-X Mission

Constellation-X is a multi-satellite x-ray astronomy mission presently being planned for launch in the 2010 time frame. Each of 4 identical satellites will contain a telescope and instruments for imaging and spectroscopic analysis of both hard and soft x-rays. The X- ray Microcalorimeter Spectrometer (XMS) instrument will use arrays of microcalorimeters to detect X-rays with energies from 0.2 to 6 keV. The technologies under development for this instrument include Transition-Edge Sensors (TES) with multiplexed SQUID readouts and NTD-Ge detectors with JFET readouts. Both will be operated at temperatures in the 50-60 mK range and both have a projected cooling power requirement of approximately 5 microwatts. In addition, in order to meet the lifetime requirement of 6 years (with a goal of 10 years), a mechanical cryocooler will be used to provide a heat sink for the low temperature cooler. The required performance is 20 mW at 6 K, with a goal of 4 K operation. In this paper we present the development status of an adiabatic demagnetization refigerator (ADR) that meets the cooling requirements of the X M S instrument. At present we have demonstrated a 4-stage ADR that operates continuously at 50 mK using a 4.2 K helium bath as a heat sink. The cooling power is 21 microwatts at 100 mK and 6 microwatts at 50 mK. Its efficiency when operating at 50 mK is 1 1 % of Carnot (accounting for all dissipation at 4.2 K and below, but not including power dissipation in the room temperature electronics), but this is expected to rise to 25% in the next generation system in which active gas-gap heat switches are replaced with passive devices. This will reduce the peak heat rejection rate of the ADR to less than 7 mW at 6 K. Details of the ADR s design and operation, as well as the development program leading up to a flight-qualified instrument, will be discussed.

Shirron, Peter↗

NASA NTRS2009

On DESTINY Science Instrument Electrical and Electronics Subsystem Framework

Future space missions are going to require large focal planes with many sensing arrays and hundreds of millions of pixels all read out at high data rates'' . This will place unique demands on the electrical and electronics (EE) subsystem design and it will be critically important to have high technology readiness level (TRL) EE concepts ready to support such missions. One such omission is the Joint Dark Energy Mission (JDEM) charged with making precise measurements of the expansion rate of the universe to reveal vital clues about the nature of dark energy - a hypothetical form of energy that permeates all of space and tends to increase the rate of the expansion. One of three JDEM concept studies - the Dark Energy Space Telescope (DESTINY) was conducted in 2008 at the NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center (GSFC) in Greenbelt, Maryland. This paper presents the EE subsystem framework, which evolved from the DESTINY science instrument study. It describes the main challenges and implementation concepts related to the design of an EE subsystem featuring multiple focal planes populated with dozens of large arrays and millions of pixels. The focal planes are passively cooled to cryogenic temperatures (below 140 K). The sensor mosaic is controlled by a large number of Readout Integrated Circuits and Application Specific Integrated Circuits - the ROICs/ASICs in near proximity to their sensor focal planes. The ASICs, in turn, are serviced by a set of "warm" EE subsystem boxes performing Field Programmable Gate Array (FPGA) based digital signal processing (DSP) computations of complex algorithms, such as sampling-up-the-ramp algorithm (SUTR), over large volumes of fast data streams. The SUTR boxes are supported by the Instrument Control/Command and Data Handling box (ICDH Primary and Backup boxes) for lossless data compression, command and low volume telemetry handling, power conversion and for communications with the spacecraft. The paper outlines how the JDEM DESTINY concept instrument EE subsystem can be built now, a design; which is generally U.S. Government work not protected by U.S. copyright IEEEAC paper # 1429. Version 4. Updated October 19, 2009 applicable to a wide variety of missions using large focal planes with lar ge mosaics of sensors.

Kizhner, Semion↗

DOE OSTI2024

Development of a strip-shaped X-ray mapping system for 9-cell superconducting cavities

Electrons emitted via field emission during superconducting (SC) radio-frequency (RF) cavity tests at vertical test stands often collide with the iris region inside the cavity, generating X-rays at these locations. In 1.3 GHz 9-cell SC RF cavities designed for the International Linear Collider (ILC), stiffener rings located outside the iris region between cells can interfere with X-ray detection, complicating the precise identification of field emission sites. Hence, in this study, we developed a high-density strip X-ray mapping systems (sX-map) that can be inserted into the iris region of ILC-type 9-cell SC RF cavities. This sX-map facilitates efficient and accurate detection of X-rays generated near the irises, unaffected by the presence of stiffener rings. The sX-map consisted of 32 sensors per strip, with sensors spaced approximately 10 mm apart. It was deployed in every iris of the 9-cell cavity, using a total of 320 sensors. A multiplexer was employed to facilitate the readout of a large number of detectors using a minimal number of signal lines, connecting the strips inside within the vertical test cryostat. In a vertical test conducted at Jefferson Lab (JLab), we demonstrated the capability of sX-map to detect X-rays despite the presence of a stiffener ring. This paper presents the detailed design of the sX-map and the results from the vertical test at JLab.

46 INSTRUMENTATION RELATED TO NUCLEAR SCIENCE AND ↗

DOE OSTI2023

A feasible path for the use of ferromagnetic josephson junctions in quantum circuits: The ferro-transmon

We discuss the capabilities of ferromagnetic (F) Josephson junctions (JJs) in a variety of layouts and configurations. The main goal is to demonstrate the potential of these hybrid JJs to disclose new physics and the possibility to integrate them in superconducting classical and quantum electronics for various applications. The feasible path towards the use of ferromagnetic Josephson junctions in quantum circuits starts from experiments demonstrating macroscopic quantum tunneling in NbN/GdN/NbN junctions with ferro-insulator barriers and with triplet components of the supercurrent, supported by a self-consistent electrodynamic characterization as a function of the barrier thickness. This has inspired further studies on tunnel ferromagnetic junctions with a different layout and promoted the first generation of ferromagnetic Al-based JJs, specifically Al/AlO x /Al/Py/Al. This layout takes advantage of the capability to integrate the ferromagnetic layer in the junction without affecting the quality of the superconducting electrodes and of the tunnel barrier. The high quality of the devices paves the way for the possible implementation of Al tunnel-ferromagnetic JJs in superconducting quantum circuits. These achievements have promoted the notion of a novel type of qubit incorporating ferromagnetic JJs. This qubit is based on a transmon design featuring a tunnel JJ in parallel with a ferromagnetic JJ inside a SQUID loop capacitively coupled to a superconducting readout resonator. In conclusion, the effect of an external RF field on the magnetic switching processes of ferromagnetic JJs has been also investigated.

75 CONDENSED MATTER PHYSICS, SUPERCONDUCTIVITY AND↗

DOE OSTI2026

Searches for CE ν NS and physics beyond the standard model using Skipper-CCDs at CONNIE

The Coherent Neutrino-Nucleus Interaction Experiment (CONNIE) aims to detect the coherent scattering ( CE ν NS ) of reactor antineutrinos off silicon nuclei using thick fully depleted high-resistivity silicon CCDs. Two Skipper-CCD sensors with subelectron readout noise capability were installed at the experiment next to the Angra-2 reactor in 2021, making CONNIE the first experiment to employ Skipper-CCDs for reactor neutrino detection. We report on the performance of the Skipper-CCDs, the new data processing, data quality, and event selection for CE ν NS interactions, which enable CONNIE to reach a record low detection threshold of 15 eV. The data were collected over 300 days in 2021–2022 and correspond to exposures of 14.9 g-days with the reactor-on and 3.5 g-days with the reactor-off. The difference between the reactor-on and off event rates shows no excess and yields upper limits for the neutrino interaction rates, comparable with previous CONNIE limits from standard CCDs and higher exposures. Searches for new neutrino interactions beyond the Standard Model improve the previous CONNIE limit on a simplified model with light vector mediators. A first dark matter (DM) search by diurnal modulation by CONNIE obtains the best limits on the DM-electron scattering cross section by a surface-level experiment. These promising results, obtained using a very small-mass sensor, illustrate the potential of Skipper-CCDs to probe rare neutrino interactions and motivate the plans to increase the detector mass in the near future.

46 INSTRUMENTATION RELATED TO NUCLEAR SCIENCE AND ↗

DOE OSTI2020

Replacing photomultiplier tubes with silicon photomultipliers for nuclear safeguards applications

Photomultiplier tubes (PMTs) have been used for decades as the default light detection technology for scintillator-based radiation monitors. PMTs come with a handful of disadvantages, however, including large volume usage, fragility, high-voltage requirements, and susceptibility to magnetic fields. Arrays of silicon photomultipliers (SiPMs) are a possible alternative to PMTs providing similar performance while offering improvements in the areas listed. We focus on straightforward “drop-in replacement” evaluations by imposing a single channel output of the SiPM signal and a backend electronics data acquisition and analysis routine identical to that used for PMTs. In the realm of nuclear safeguards, the primary performance metric for gamma spectroscopy is detector resolution, and for neutron detection it is pulse shape discrimination (PSD) to separate neutron and gamma signals. In this work we present the results of replacing a PMT with a 2” x 2” SiPM array mounted, in turn, to the same 2” x 2” cylindrical sodium iodide (NaI) crystal. The ultimate comparison for this gamma spectrometry is confirmation of uranium enrichment standards, ranging from depleted uranium to 93% highly enriched uranium (HEU), by analyzing the resulting spectra with both a simple integral scaling in key energy regions of the spectrum, as well as with the NaIGEM software package. In addition to the gamma spectroscopy work, we will present the latest results on comparing the PSD capabilities of a 4” x 4” SiPM array to a 5” PMT. As with the gamma spectroscopy evaluations, the light detectors are mounted in turn to the same liter-scale organic scintillators. This neutron-focused work includes evaluation of prototype SiPM readout boards with a single output signal summed over 256 individual SiPM pixels, and evident tradeoffs between PSD capability and fast response.

42 ENGINEERING↗

DOE OSTI2020

Replacing photomultiplier tubes with silicon photomultipliers for nuclear safeguards applications

Engineering - Instrumentation related to nuclear s↗

DOE OSTI2025

SQuaD: Smart Quantum Detection for Photon Recognition and Dark Count Elimination

Quantum detectors of single photons are an essential component for quantum information processing across computing, communication and networking. Today's quantum detection system, which consists of single photon detectors, timing electronics, control and data processing software, is primarily used for counting the number of single photon detection events. However, it is largely incapable of extracting other rich physical characteristics of the detected photons, such as their wavelengths, polarization states, photon numbers, or temporal waveforms. This work, for the first time, demonstrates a smart quantum detection system, SQuaD, which integrates a field programmable gate array (FPGA) with a neural network model, and is designed to recognize the features of photons and to eliminate detector dark-count. The SQuaD is a fully integrated quantum system with high timing-resolution data acquisition, onboard multi-scale data analysis, intelligent feature recognition and extraction, and feedback-driven system control. Our \name experimentally demonstrates 1) reliable photon counting on par with the state-of-the art commercial systems; 2) high-throughput data processing for each individual detection events; 3) efficient dark count recognition and elimination; 4) up to 100% accurate feature recognition of photon wavelength and polarization. Additionally, we deploy the SQuaD to an atomic (erbium ion) photon emitter source to realize noise-free control and readout of a spin qubit in the telecom band, enabling critical advances in quantum networks and distributed quantum information processing.

Linne, Karl C. [U. Chicago (main)] (ORCID:00090009↗