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Search indexed NASA NTRS and DOE OSTI research on propulsion, heat transfer, battery materials and energy systems. Follow report and document links to the original sources.

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At least 685 records · Page 38
All sourcesNASA NTRSDOE OSTI
DOE OSTI2020

Techno-economic analysis of cathode material production using flame-assisted spray pyrolysis

The cost of cathode materials contributes approximately 32.7% of the total cell construction cost of lithium-ion batteries, significantly affecting the price of battery packs. To reduce the cathode material manufacturing cost, a flame-assisted spray pyrolysis (FSP) method has been developed to utilize a sustainable solvent of glycerol to manufacture the LiNi 1/3 Mn 1/3 Co 1/3 O 2 (NMC333) cathode materials. The purpose of this study is to evaluate the minimum cathode material selling price (MCSP) of the FSP processes compared with a traditional carbonate co-precipitation pathway. Results show that the MCSP of the FSP is $\$$19.1/kg that is 17% lower than the traditional carbonate co-precipitation pathway as a result of lower fixed operating cost and variable overhead. Sensitivity analysis shows that when the new process is integrated with in-situ sintering and processing, the MCSP can be as low as $\$$15.6/kg. When all the material prices are decreased by 20%, the FSP process can synthesize NMC333 at a price of $\$$2.3/kg lower. According to the simulation result, LiNi 0·8 Mn 0·1 Co 0·1 O 2 (NMC811) has the best potential to meet the U.S. Department of Energy battery price target of $\$$125/kWh, demonstrating that the FSP process is an attractive manufacturing technology for NMC cathode powder material production.

25 ENERGY STORAGE↗
DOE OSTI2021

A perspective on single-crystal layered oxide cathodes for lithium-ion batteries

As the demand for lithium-ion batteries grows exponentially to feed the nascent electric-vehicle and grid-storage markets, the need for higher energy density and longer cycle life becomes more apparent. Increasing the nickel content in the layered-oxide cathodes has been a dominant strategy to increase energy density, but this has exacerbated the surface reactivity concerns. Furthermore, the high states of charge associated with increased capacity lead to cracking of the polycrystalline cathode particles, which exposes fresh surfaces and accelerates capacity fade. Single-crystal cathode particles with low susceptibility to cracking have recently taken on intense interest due to their remarkable cyclability. Many different approaches to single-crystal synthesis have been explored, but there has been no systematic analysis of the different techniques to date. Additionally, many reports have taken on a trial-and-error approach, ignoring well established literature on grain growth outside the battery field. This perspective reviews the literature on single-crystal cathode synthesis through the lens of classic grain growth theories, providing insight and hopefully accelerating the adoption of the promising single-crystal cathode morphology.

25 ENERGY STORAGE↗
DOE OSTI2021

Extended cycle life implications of fast charging for lithium-ion battery cathode

Enabling extreme fast charging (XFC, =10–15 min charging) requires a comprehensive understanding of its implications. While lithium plating is a key bottleneck for the anode, the full extent of limitations for the cathode are not well-understood, particularly in extended-cycle settings with well-defined battery designs and conditions. This article presents cycle-life implications of XFC on cathodes at multiple length scales, combining electrochemical analyses, degradation modeling, and post-test characterizations. The comprehensive test matrix includes 41 well-defined gr/NMC pouch cells under varied fast-charge rates (1–9C) and state-of-charges cycled up to 1000 times. Cathode issues remain minimal in early cycling, but begin to accelerate in later life, when distinct cracking is found and identified as a fatigue mechanism. The bulk structure of cathodes remains intact, but distinct particle surface reconstruction is observed; however, this shows less pronounced effect on cathode aging than does cracking.

25 ENERGY STORAGE↗
DOE OSTI2026

Unraveling the Synergistic effects of La and Al co-doping on Ni/Co-free P2-type Na 0.67 Mn 0.67 Fe 0.33 O 2 layered oxide cathodes for sodium-ion batteries

Recent developments in high-performance cathodes for sodium-ion batteries (SIBs) tend to mitigate use of critical Ni and Co active species to satisfy sustainability. P2-type layered oxide cathodes based on Mn and Fe promise high capacity, sustainability, and low cost on account of the abundance and multiple redox characteristics of Mn and Fe. However, their commercialization is still challenged due to poor cycling stability caused by phase changes emanating from inherent Jahn-Teller distortions. Herein, we propose a novel strategy of trivalent La and Al co-doping to alleviate the drawbacks, innovating a new cathode of Na 0.67 Mn 0.62 Al 0.05 Fe 0.31 La 0.02 O 2 (AlLa). The co-doped cathode delivers an impressive capacity of 128.7 mAh/g at 1C and 106.5 mAh/g at high rate of 5C with a good capacity retention of 85% after 100 cycles. These are superior to the unmodified material, whose specific capacity was 118.6 mAh/g at 1C and 61.1 mAh/g at 5C with a retention of only 65% after 100 cycles. The synergistic contribution from La and Al associated with their improved oxygen bonding, pillaring, and local electronic structural modification stemming from rigid Lasingle bondO and Alsingle bondO bonding resulted in the observed structural and electrochemical improvement. Overall, this research offers novel strategies for designing high-performance cathode materials for sodium-ion batteries.

25 ENERGY STORAGE↗
DOE OSTI2017

Cathode-side electrical contact and contact materials for solid oxide fuel cell stacking: A review

In a planar solid oxide fuel cell (SOFC) stack, a number of individual cells are stacked together to increase the voltage and power output. At both the cathode– and anode–interconnect interfaces, electrical contact layers are applied between the interconnect and electrodes during cell fabrication process or stack assembly to increase the electrode-interconnect contact area and to compensate for dimensional tolerance variation of the contacting components, thus minimizing ohmic contact resistance throughout the stack. As such, electrical contact is an essential component in SOFC stacks. In this paper, we review the cathode-side electrical contact design and contact materials for application in SOFC stacks. Following an introduction of the function and working principles of electrical contact, the material requirements for cathode-side contact layer in SOFC stacks are outlined. Additionally, the current materials for the cathode–interconnect contact are thoroughly reviewed, including noble metals, conductive ceramics (e.g. perovskites and spinels), composites, and other more complex structures. Several potential directions for cathode–interconnect contact material research and development are also highlighted.

08 HYDROGEN↗
DOE OSTI2024

Deep learning of experimental electrochemistry for battery cathodes across diverse compositions

Artificial intelligence (AI) has emerged as a tool for discovering and optimizing novel battery materials. However, the adoption of AI in battery cathode representation and discovery is still limited due to the complexity of optimizing multiple performance properties and the scarcity of high-fidelity data. Here, we present a machine learning model (DRXNet) for battery informatics and demonstrate the application in the discovery and optimization of disordered rocksalt (DRX) cathode materials. We have compiled the electrochemistry data of DRX cathodes over the past 5 years, resulting in a dataset of more than 19,000 discharge voltage profiles on diverse chemistries spanning 14 different metal species. Learning from this extensive dataset, our DRXNet model can capture critical features in the cycling curves of DRX cathodes under various conditions. Our approach offers a data-driven solution to facilitate the rapid identification of novel cathode materials, accelerating the development of next-generation batteries for carbon neutralization.

25 ENERGY STORAGE↗
DOE OSTI2022

Extreme fast charge aging: Correlation between electrode scale and heterogeneous degradation in Ni-rich layered cathodes

Extreme fast charging (XFC) is a key requirement for the adoption of battery-based electric vehicles by the transportation sector. However, XFC has been shown to accelerate degradation, causing the capacity, life, and safety of batteries to deteriorate. There are no systematic studies in the open literature regarding aging modes in Ni-rich Li y Ni 0.a Mn 0.b Co 0.c O 2 (NMCabc) cathodes caused by fast charging. Herein, we report the effects of cathode composition and electrode loading in pouch cells containing NMC532, 622 and 811 paired with graphite and cycled under XFC conditions. The relative anisotropic volume change in the unit cell increases with Ni content in low-loading cells, while it levels up for all three NMC cathodes in high-loading cells because of substantial Li plating. The amounts of lithium plating and heterogeneity on the anode, determined by crystallographic phase quantification, were found to be correlated with electrode loading and cathode heterogeneity. The concentrations of the transition metals deposited on the anodes depend on NMCabc composition in a complex way. More particle cracking and surface degradation was found in NMC811. Here, the findings in this work provide a new understanding of the failure mechanisms and their practical implications for compositional tuning of future high-Ni NMCabc cathode materials during fast charging.

25 ENERGY STORAGE↗
DOE OSTI2025

Bayesian optimization of entropy-stabilized metal fluoride conversion cathodes and their synthesis

Fluoride-based conversion cathodes are promising for next-generation Li ion batteries because of their high voltage and energy densities. High entropy earth abundant fluoride cathodes are attractive for sustainable battery because of the potentially higher cycling stability. While Ni and Co containing equimolar alloys stabilized by high entropy were considered previously, Ni and Co free non-equimolar metal alloy compositions might offer new opportunities to increase materials stability and average voltage. This opportunity was pursued using Bayesian optimization of average voltage for the computational prediction of (Fe x1 Cu x2 Zn x3 Mn x4 Mg x5 )F 2 cathode chemistries. Theoretical voltage, room temperature free energy, and electronic structure of potentially high voltage compositions were computed using density functional theory calculations. Here, the experimental realization of non-equimolar quinary Co and Ni free fluorides with stable rutile single phase and improved conversion reaction voltage by up to 28 % compared to the equimolar alloy demonstrated the power of Bayesian optimization methods for the computationally guided experimental synthesis of fluoride cathodes. Finally, non-equimolar cathode chemistries were found with cycling stability superior to known multi-element fluorides.

25 ENERGY STORAGE↗
DOE OSTI2017

Investigation of structural and electrochemical properties of LaSrCo{sub 1−x}Sb{sub x}O{sub 4} (0≤x≤0.20) as potential cathode materials in intermediate-temperature solid oxide fuel cells

The structural and electrochemical properties of the layered perovskite oxides LaSrCo{sub 1−x}Sb{sub x}O{sub 4} (0≤x≤0.20) were investigated to study the effects of substituting Sb for Co for application as cathode materials in intermediate temperature solid oxide fuel cells (IT-SOFCs). The results of crystal structure analyses show the maximum content of Sb in LaSrCo{sub 1−x}Sb{sub x}O{sub 4} to be 0.05 as a pure single phase. XPS shows that Co and Sb in LaSrCo{sub 0.95}Sb{sub 0.05}O{sub 4} may possess mixed-oxidation states. The electrical conductivity increased greatly after Sb substitution. An improvement in the cathode polarization (R{sub p}) values is observed from the Sb-doped sample with respect to the undoped samples. For example, R{sub p} of LaSrCo{sub 0.95}Sb{sub 0.05}O{sub 4} on LSGM was observed to be 0.16 Ω cm{sup 2} at 800 °C in air. The main rate-limiting step for LaSrCo{sub 0.95}Sb{sub 0.05}O{sub 4} cathode is charge transfer of oxygen atoms. These results indicate that Sb can be incorporated into LaSrCo{sub 1−x}Sb{sub x}O{sub 4} based materials and can have a beneficial effect on the performance, making them potentially suitable for use as cathode materials in IT-SOFCs. - Graphical abstract: The oxygen partial pressure dependence of polarization resistances for a new layered perovskite cathode LaSrCo{sub 0.95}Sb{sub 0.05}O{sub 4} at various temperatures was measured. - Highlights: • The maximum content of Sb was 0.05 mol in LaSrCo{sub 1−x}Sb{sub x}O{sub 4}. • The maximum electrical conductivity is 194 S cm{sup −1}for LaSrCo{sub 0.95}Sb{sub 0.05}O{sub 4} at 800 °C. • A rate-limiting process of charge transfer presented.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗
DOE OSTI2015

Effect of ‘A’-site non stoichiometry in strontium doped lanthanum ferrite based solid oxide fuel cell cathodes

Highlights: • La{sub 1−x}Sr{sub x}Co{sub y}Fe{sub 1−y}O{sub 3−δ}, x = 0.4; y = 0.2 system varying La-site (0.6–0.54) are studied. • Combustion synthesis technique is used to prepare the powder samples. • Highest electrical conductivity observed with largest A-site deficit composition. • Lowest cathode polarization is found with the same composition (0.02 Ω cm{sup 2}). • Composition with largest A-site deficiency exhibits best performance (2.84 A cm{sup −2}). - Abstract: Effect of A-site non-stoichiometry in strontium doped lanthanum cobalt ferrite (La{sub 1−x}Sr{sub x}Co{sub y}Fe{sub 1−y}O{sub 3−δ}, x = 0.4; y = 0.2) is studied in a systematic manner with variation of ‘A’ site stoichiometry from 1 to 0.94. The perovskite based cathode compositions are synthesized by combustion synthesis. Powder characterizations reveal rhombohedral crystal structure with crystallite size ranging from 29 to 34 nm with minimum lattice spacing of 0.271 nm. Detailed sintering studies along with total DC electrical conductivities are evaluated in the bulk form with variation of sintering temperatures. The electrode polarizations are measured in the symmetric cell configuration by impedance spectroscopy which is found to be the lowest (0.02 Ω cm{sup 2} at 800 °C) for cathode having highest degree of ‘A’-site deficiency. The same cathode composition exhibits a current density of 2.84 A cm{sup −2} (at 0.7 V, 800 °C) in anode-supported single cell. An attempt has been made to correlate the trend of electrical behaviour with increasing ‘A’-site deficiency for such cathode compositions.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2016

Improving thermal and electrochemical performances of LiCoO{sub 2} cathode at high cut-off charge potentials by MF{sub 3} (M=Ce, Al) coating

Highlights: • Fluoride metal is successfully coated on the surface of LiCoO{sub 2}. • Easy and scalable method is adopted for the synthesis of coated-LiCoO{sub 2}. • Appropriate amount of AlF{sub 3} or CeF{sub 3} is beneficial to reduce cation disorder. • The electrochemical performances of coated LiCoO{sub 2} is significantly enhanced at higher potential (cycling efficiency and reversible capacity). • The coated cathode exhibits excellent thermal stability highlighted by calorimetric technique. - Abstract: Surface coating of LiCoO{sub 2} remained one of the efficient methods to enhance its electrochemical and thermal performances, especially at high cut-off potential. In this work, MF{sub 3} (M = Ce, Al) coated LiCoO{sub 2} was synthesized via co-precipitation method followed by a solid state reaction at 400 °C. The morphology and structure of the modified cathode material were characterized by scanning electron microscopy (SEM), X-ray diffraction (XRD) and transmission electron microscopy (TEM). The results show that the fluoride compound MF{sub 3} is successfully coated on the surface of LiCoO{sub 2} cathode particles with an average layer thickness about 12 nm and 40 nm for AlF{sub 3} and CeF{sub 3}, respectively. The electrochemical tests show that the AlF{sub 3}-coating layer significantly enhances the cycling performance of LiCoO{sub 2} cathode material, even at high cut-off potential. While the bare LiCoO{sub 2} cathode displays fast fading at 4.6 V vs. Li{sup +}/Li cutoff potential, the surface-modified electrode exhibits the great capacity of 160 mAh g{sup −1} with excellent capacity retention on several cycles. We concluded that the electrochemical and the thermal enhancement at high potential are ascribed to the presence of MF{sub 3} coating layer which prevent the side reaction during the charge discharge process, alleviate the attack by the acidic electrolyte and reduce the damage of electrode structure.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2018

An effective strategy to enhancing tolerance to contaminants poisoning of solid oxide fuel cell cathodes

Commercialization of solid oxide fuel cells (SOFCs) is impeded by severe cathode degradation from the poisoning effect of contaminants commonly encountered in air (such as H 2 O and CO 2 ) and from other cell components (e.g., Cr species from chromium-containing interconnector). Here we report our findings in unraveling the mechanism of Cr poisoning of La .6 Sr .4 Co .2 Fe .8 O 3 (LSCF) cathodes using our unique in situ/operando surface enhanced Raman spectroscopy. Further, we present an effective strategy to enhancing the tolerance to contaminants poisoning of LSCF cathode through infiltration of a hybrid catalyst coating, which is composed of a conformal film of perovskite PrNi .5 Mn .5 O 3 (PNM) and exsoluted PrO x nano-particles. The coating is catalytically active to oxygen reduction reaction but inert to contaminant poisoning. When subjected to an accelerated Cr-poisoning test, the cells with a hybrid catalyst-coated LSCF cathode show excellent peak power density (P max of 0.71 Wcm -2 ) and significantly enhanced durability (degradation rate of 0.0434% h -1 at 0.7 V), much better than those of cells with a bare LSCF cathode (P max of ~0.46 Wcm -2 and degradation rate of 0.4% h -1 at 0.7 V). The results suggest that surface modification of electrodes with a coating of rationally designed catalysts is a cost-effective approach to dramatically reducing electrode degradation caused by contaminations.

25 ENERGY STORAGE↗
DOE OSTI2021

A universal etching method for synthesizing high-performance single crystal cathode materials

LiNi x MnyCo 1-x-y O 2 (NMC) is considered the most appealing cathode material due to its high energy density and low cost. However, the stability and safety concerns, caused by the degradation of polycrystalline cathode materials during cycling, have restricted their practical applications. To overcome this shortcoming, converting polycrystalline cathode to high-performance single-crystal cathode materials becomes an appealing solution. In this work, a universal etching approach is firstly developed to synthesize single-crystal cathode materials. The rate performance of the obtained single-crystal NMC111 is 10–15% more than that of polycrystalline NMC111 whereas the capacity retention of single-crystal NMC111 is enhanced by ~12% after 300 cycles at 0.5C. The obtained single-crystal NMC622 exhibits a pronounced improvement in rate performance, especially at high rates (~28.6% better at 5C and ~129% better at 10C) and has a comparable cycle performance compared to polycrystalline NMC622. Altogether, the findings propose an alternative approach to generate single-crystal particles with high energy density and cycle stability for the next generation lithium-ion batteries.

25 ENERGY STORAGE↗
DOE OSTI2023

Fast Charge Induced Phase Evolution and Element Contribution of Nickel-Rich Layered Cathode for Lithium-Ion Batteries

In nickel-rich layered cathode materials, three transition metals (TM = Ni, Co and Mn) play critical roles in Li storage performance. However, rate-dependent phase evolution and elemental contribution of nickel-rich cathode materials are not well understood, but very important for further design and development of these cathodes in high-power applications. Here, the rate-dependent phase evolution and elemental contribution of LiNi 0.5 Mn 0.3 Co 0.2 O 2 (NMC532) cathode are investigated thoroughly by using time-resolved synchrotron-based in situ X-ray diffraction and absorption techniques. The increase of Ni content in NMC532 has been found to be the main cause of the complex structural changes, resulting in distortion of TM-O 6 octahedron and strong static vibration between TM and O coordination. It is revealed that the fast charge (10C and 30C) of NMC532 leads to intermediate Li-poor phases, shrinking of H2 phase region, and prolonged O1 phase. During high-rate charging, Co is oxidized easily in low voltage region, while Ni mainly dominates charge compensation in high voltage region. It is found that delithiation-induced local structure distortion transfers from Ni to Co sites in fast kinetic process. In conclusion, these findings provide in-depth understanding for the fast charge behavior of Ni-rich layered cathode materials and help to guide further development of advanced high-power lithium-ion batteries.

25 ENERGY STORAGE↗
DOE OSTI2023

Inhibit the strain accumulation for 5V spinel cathode by mitigating the phase separation during high voltage stage

LiNi 0.5 Mn 1.5 O 4 (LNMO) spinel cathode is a potential cathode material for high-power, low-cost lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) due to its low raw material cost, high operating voltage and efficient lithium-ion transport channel. However, LNMO suffers from structural stability due to the two-phase-transformation during charge/discharge process, leading to poor cycling performance. Here, to address the issues, we have constructed a homogeneous aggregated LNMO cathode with a multifaceted primary particle, namely the LNMO with single-crystal secondary particles (SSP LNMO). Ex situ and in situ characterizations including the synchrotron X-ray diffraction, the neutron diffraction and full pouch cell validated that the SSP LNMO exhibit a single solid-solution reactions with a restrained lattice evolution during the delithiation/lithiation process. This is in contrast to the normal LNMO cathode, which demonstrates a significant two-phase transition from spinel Li 1-x Ni 0.5 Mn 1.5 O 4 to rock-salt MnO 2 at high voltage. Therefore, the SSP LNMO has greatly improved cycle life compared to the normal LNMO cathode. Overall, this study demonstrates the possibility of constructing LNMO based on primary-grain morphology modulation to improve the intrinsic stability of LIBs.

25 ENERGY STORAGE↗
DOE OSTI2017

Lithium recycling and cathode material regeneration from acid leach liquor of spent lithium-ion battery via facile co-extraction and co-precipitation processes

Highlights: • A novel process for combining Li and cathode material recycling is developed. • Ni, Co and Mn are co-extracted and separated with Li. • Li recovered as Li{sub 2}CO{sub 3} with the purity of 99.2% is achieved. • The spherical cathode material LiNi{sub 1/3}Co{sub 1/3}Mn{sub 1/3}O{sub 2} is directly regenerated. - Abstract: A novel process for extracting transition metals, recovering lithium and regenerating cathode materials based on facile co-extraction and co-precipitation processes has been developed. 100% manganese, 99% cobalt and 85% nickel are co-extracted and separated from lithium by D2EHPA in kerosene. Then, Li is recovered from the raffinate as Li{sub 2}CO{sub 3} with the purity of 99.2% by precipitation method. Finally, organic load phase is stripped with 0.5 M H{sub 2}SO{sub 4}, and the cathode material LiNi{sub 1/3}Co{sub 1/3}Mn{sub 1/3}O{sub 2} is directly regenerated from stripping liquor without separating metal individually by co-precipitation method. The regenerative cathode material LiNi{sub 1/3}Co{sub 1/3}Mn{sub 1/3}O{sub 2} is miro spherical morphology without any impurities, which can meet with LiNi{sub 1/3}Co{sub 1/3}Mn{sub 1/3}O{sub 2} production standard of China and exhibits good electrochemical performance. Moreover, a waste battery management model is introduced to guarantee the material supply for spent battery recycling.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗
DOE OSTI2019

Toward Long-Life, Ultrahigh-Nickel Layered Oxide Cathodes for Lithium-Ion Batteries: Optimizing the Interphase Chemistry with a Dual-Functional Polymer

Boosting the Ni content in LiMO 2 (M = Ni, Co, Mn, etc.) layered oxides is a promising way to establish high-energydensity, low-cost cathodes, but the poor cathode surface stability is a daunting challenge for their practical viability. Herein, by constructing a dual-functional binder framework with a conductive polymer - polyaniline (PANI), the ultrahigh-Ni layered oxide cathode (LiNi 0.94 Co 0.06 O 2 ) exhibits significantly improved cyclability, with a capacity retention greatly increased from 47% to 81% over 1,000 cycles in full cells. It is demonstrated that the acidic species (e.g. HF) in the electrolyte can be efficiently scavenged through a protonation process of PANI, hence the cathode surface reactivity is greatly suppressed and the rock-salt phase propagation into bulk structure is considerably alleviated. Furthermore, the PANI binder system effectively prevents both the cathode-electrolyte interphase (CEI) and anode-electrolyte interphase (AEI) from degrading to a thick “triple-layer” architecture upon extensive cycling, resulting in more robust, thinner CEI and AEI with regulated interphasial chemistry. Moreover, the delocalized π-conjugated electrons along the backbone of PANI facilitate fast electron transfer and promote rate capability even at low temperatures (-20 °C). Finally, this work sheds light on rational binder engineering for developing high-energy-density lithium-ion batteries with acceptable cycle life.

25 ENERGY STORAGE↗
DOE OSTI2022

Removal of Surface Carbonate from Lithium-Ion Battery Cathode Materials via Vapor-Phase Fluorination

Herein, ultrathin metal-fluoride barrier coatings on the surface of lithium-ion battery (LIB) cathodes can improve cycling stability and prevent corrosion by acidic byproducts in the electrolyte. Atomic layer deposition (ALD) is an effective method to deposit ultrathin metal fluoride coatings on LIB cathodes. Although numerous studies have demonstrated the benefit of ALD metal fluoride coatings to LIB performance, comparatively few works have examined the effect of individual ALD precursors on the cathode surface. This paper uses X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) measurements to elucidate the surface chemical changes on LIB cathode material surfaces upon exposure to the ALD metal fluoride precursor, hydrogen fluorine pyridine (HFPy). We found a decrease in surface carbonate and an increase in surface fluoride after HFPy exposure suggesting the conversion of lithium carbonate (Li 2 CO 3 ) to lithium fluoride (LiF). This conversion is desirable given that Li 2 CO 3 degrades LIB performance, whereas LiF provides an excellent physio-chemical barrier against chemical attack during cycling. Scanning transmission electron microscopy, X-ray energy dispersive spectroscopy, and XPS measurements following HFPy exposure to Li 2 CO 3 powder revealed the formation of a conformal LiF shell around the Li 2 CO 3 particles. Finally, we confirmed the complete conversion of similar to 7 nm ALD Li 2 CO 3 films on silicon from HFPy exposure using XPS and spectroscopic ellipsometry. The elimination of problematic Li 2 CO 3 from LIB cathode surfaces and conversion into a protective LiF coating via a single precursor vapor treatment may provide a cost-effective method for enhancing LIB performance.

25 ENERGY STORAGE↗