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All sourcesNASA NTRSDOE OSTI
DOE OSTI2021

Enabling Particulate Materials Processing Science for High-Consequence, Small-Lot Precision Manufacturing

This Laboratory Directed Research and Development project developed and applied closely coupled experimental and computational tools to investigate powder compaction across multiple length scales. The primary motivation for this work is to provide connections between powder feedstock characteristics, processing conditions, and powder pellet properties in the context of powder-based energetic components manufacturing. We have focused our efforts on multicrystalline cellulose, a molecular crystalline surrogate material that is mechanically similar to several energetic materials of interest, but provides several advantages for fundamental investigations. We report extensive experimental characterization ranging in length scale from nanometers to macroscopic, bulk behavior. Experiments included nanoindentation of well-controlled, micron-scale pillar geometries milled into the surface of individual particles, single-particle crushing experiments, in-situ optical and computed tomography imaging of the compaction of multiple particles in different geometries, and bulk powder compaction. In order to capture the large plastic deformation and fracture of particles in computational models, we have advanced two distinct meshfree Lagrangian simulation techniques: 1.) bonded particle methods, which extend existing discrete element method capabilities in the Sandia-developed , open-source LAMMPS code to capture particle deformation and fracture and 2.) extensions of peridynamics for application to mesoscale powder compaction, including a novel material model that includes plasticity and creep. We have demonstrated both methods for simulations of single-particle crushing as well as mesoscale multi-particle compaction, with favorable comparisons to experimental data. We have used small-scale, mechanical characterization data to inform material models, and in-situ imaging of mesoscale particle structures to provide initial conditions for simulations. Both mesostructure porosity characteristics and overall stress-strain behavior were found to be in good agreement between simulations and experiments. We have thus demonstrated a novel multi-scale, closely coupled experimental and computational approach to the study of powder compaction. This enables a wide range of possible investigations into feedstock-process-structure relationships in powder-based materials, with immediate applications in energetic component manufacturing, as well as other particle-based components and processes.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2014

Interfacial Properties and Design of Functional Energy Materials

The vital importance of energy to society continues to demand a relentless pursuit of energy responsive materials that can bridge fundamental chemical structures at the molecular level and achieve improved functionality, such as efficient energy conversion/storage/transmission, over multiple length scales. This demand can potentially be realized by harnessing the power of self-assembly a spontaneous process where molecules or much larger entities form ordered aggregates as a consequence of predominately non-covalent (weak) interactions. Self-assembly is the key to bottom-up design of molecular devices, because the nearly atomic-level control is very difficult to realize in a top-down, e.g., lithographic approach. However, while function (e.g., charge mobility) in simple systems such as single crystals can often be predicted, predicting the function of the great variety of self-assembled molecular architectures is complicated by the lack of understanding and control over nanoscale interactions, mesoscale architectures, and macroscale (long-range) order. To establish a foundation toward delivering practical solutions, it is critical to develop an understanding of the chemical and physical mechanisms responsible for the self-assembly of molecular and hybrid materials on various substrates. Typically molecular self-assembly involves poorly understood non-covalent intermolecular and substrate-molecule interactions compounded by local and/or collective influences from the substrate atomic lattice (symmetry and/or topological features) and electronic structure. Thus, progress towards unraveling the underlying physicochemical processes that control the structure and macroscopic physical, mechanical, electrical, and transport properties of materials increasingly requires tight integration of theory, modeling and simulation with precision synthesis, advanced experimental characterization, and device measurements. In this mode, theory and simulation can greatly accelerate the process of materials discovery by providing atomic level understanding of physicochemical phenomena and for making predictions of trends. In particular, this approach can provide understanding, prediction and exploration of new materials and conditions before they are realized in the lab, to illuminate connections between experimental observations, and help identify new materials for targeted synthesis. Toward this end, Density Functional Theory (DFT) can provide a suitable computational framework for investigating the inter- and intramolecular bonding, molecular conformation, charge and spin configurations that are intrinsic to self-assembly of molecules on substrates. This Account highlights recent advances in using an integrated approach based on DFT and scanning probe microscopy [STM(s), AFM] to study/develop electronic materials formed from the self-assembly of molecules into supramolecular or polymeric architectures on substrates. Here it is the interplay between molecular interactions and surface electrons that is used to control the final architecture and subsequent bulk properties of the two-dimensional patterns/assemblies. Indeed a rich variety of functional energy materials become possible.

Sumpter, Bobby G↗
DOE OSTI2015

Template-directed assembly of metal-chalcogenide nanocrystals into ordered mesoporous networks.

Although great progress in the synthesis of porous networks of metal and metal oxide nanoparticles with highly accessible pore surface and ordered mesoscale pores has been achieved, synthesis of assembled 3D mesostructures of metal-chalcogenide nanocrystals is still challenging. In this work we demonstrate that ordered mesoporous networks, which comprise well-defined interconnected metal sulfide nanocrystals, can be prepared through a polymer-templated oxidative polymerization process. The resulting self-assembled mesostructures that were obtained after solvent extraction of the polymer template impart the unique combination of light-emitting metal chalcogenide nanocrystals, three-dimensional open-pore structure, high surface area, and uniform pores. We show that the pore surface of these materials is active and accessible to incoming molecules, exhibiting high photocatalytic activity and stability, for instance, in oxidation of 1-phenylethanol into acetophenone. We demonstrate through appropriate selection of the synthetic components that this method is general to prepare ordered mesoporous materials from metal chalcogenide nanocrystals with various sizes and compositions.

mesoporous semiconductors↗
NASA NTRS1999

Satellite Derived Land Surface Temperature for Model Assimilation

Studies have shown that land surface temperature (LST) tendencies are sensitive to the surface moisture availability which is a function of soil moisture and vegetation. The assimilation of satellite derived LST tendencies into the surface energy budget of mesoscale models has shown promise in improving the representation of the complex effects of both soil moisture and vegetation within the models for short term simulations. LST derived from geostationary satellites has the potential of providing the temporal and spatial resolution needed for an LST assimilation process. This paper presents an analysis comparing the LST derived from GOES-8 infrared measurements with LST calculated by the MM5 numerical model. The satellite derived LSTs are calculated using a physical split window approach using channels 4 and 5 of GOES-8. The differences in the LST data sets, especially the tendencies, are presented and examined. Quantifying the differences between the data sets provide insight of possible weaknesses in the model parameterizations affecting the surface energy budget calculations and an indication of the potential effectiveness o f assimilating LST into the models.

Suggs, Ronnie J.↗
DOE OSTI2018

Deep Convection: Onset, Diurnal Cycle, and Role in Climate Variability and Sensitivity (Final Report)

The ASR SGP testbed for continuous modeling offers new opportunities to improve GCM parameterizations. We conducted an ASR investigation of convective and cloud microphysical processes that used existing ARM data as a testing ground for meaningful approaches to model evaluation and set the stage for later strategic use of the testbed to improve cumulus parameterizations and better understand deep convective cloud feedback. Our research consisted of the following tasks: Diurnal cycle of continental convection Deep convection at the SGP occurs in two forms: Organized mesoscale convection that originates upstream and produces peak precipitation at night; and local shallow convection that develops into deep convection that peaks in late afternoon. Local transitions are a logical next step from the shallow convection that will be the early focus of the testbed. This transition constrains entrainment and cold pools, since GCMs produce a continental rain peak near noon. We studied ARSCL-observed transition cases using the WRF, determined the sources of SCM diurnal cycle errors and made parameterization changes as appropriate. Factors controlling convective detrainment and anvil evolution Convective detrainment is a major source of high cloud ice water content and cloud forcing. The GISS GCM diagnoses a convective updraft speed profile, assumes a particle size distribution (PSD), and uses size-fallspeed relations to determine the fraction of condensate carried upward vs. precipitating. We used SCM case studies for TWP-ICE and MC3E for which vertical velocity has been retrieved to test whether entrainment improvements produce realistic updraft speeds and then improved the updraft microphysics parameterization. We compared detrained ice water contents and fall speeds to ARM and other field experiment data to refine the GCM’s fall speed and PSD assumptions. Role of convective cloud radiative processes in the Madden-Julian Oscillation (MJO) Changes in entrainment and rain evaporation and a cold pool parameterization have produced an MJO in the GISS GCM for the first time and allowed us to reproduce the KAZR dependence of convection depth on humidity during AMIE-Gan. We determined whether recent model changes including cold pools improve or degrade the MJO and made adjustments accordingly.

54 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES↗
NASA NTRS2012

Genesis of Twin Tropical Cyclones as Revealed by a Global Mesoscale Model: The Role of Mixed Rossby Gravity Waves

In this study, it is proposed that twin tropical cyclones (TCs), Kesiny and 01A, in May 2002 formed in association with the scale interactions of three gyres that appeared as a convectively coupled mixed Rossby gravity (ccMRG) wave during an active phase of the Madden-Julian Oscillation (MJO). This is shown by analyzing observational data, including NCEP reanalysis data and METEOSAT 7 IR satellite imagery, and performing numerical simulations using a global mesoscale model. A 10-day control run is initialized at 0000 UTC 1 May 2002 with grid-scale condensation but no sub-grid cumulus parameterizations. The ccMRG wave was identified as encompassing two developing and one non-developing gyres, the first two of which intensified and evolved into the twin TCs. The control run is able to reproduce the evolution of the ccMRG wave and thus the formation of the twin TCs about two and five days in advance as well as their subsequent intensity evolution and movement within an 8-10 day period. Five additional 10-day sensitivity experiments with different model configurations are conducted to help understand the interaction of the three gyres, leading to the formation of the TCs. These experiments suggest the improved lead time in the control run may be attributed to the realistic simulation of the ccMRG wave with the following processes: (1) wave deepening (intensification) associated with a reduction in wavelength and/or the intensification of individual gyres, (2) poleward movement of gyres that may be associated with boundary layer processes, (3) realistic simulation of moist processes at regional scales in association with each of the gyres, and (4) the vertical phasing of low- and mid-level cyclonic circulations associated with a specific gyre.

forecast↗
DOE OSTI2022

The Effect of Surface Heating Heterogeneity on Boundary Layer Height and Its Dependence on Background Wind Speed

The planetary boundary layer height (PBLH) is a fundamental variable of the planetary boundary layer (PBL). The effect of surface heterogeneity is challenging in the PBL parameterization for numerical weather and climate models. Here we use large eddy simulation data to investigate the impact of surface heating heterogeneity on the PBLH spatial variations and mean values over a domain of typical mesoscale model grid size. It is found that this impact depends on background wind condition. Variance decomposition and Fourier spectra both reveal that for the fully developed sheared convective PBL, surface heterogeneity contributes little to the spatial variation of PBLH, except for the case with heterogeneity scale of 14.4 km. This suggests that surface heterogeneity with length scales less than ~10 km, which is typical for mesoscale modeling, does not induce significant subgrid spatial variation of PBLH. The domain-averaged PBLH is found to generally increase as surface heterogeneity scale decreases, until reaching the scale on the order of PBLH. The findings can be used to inform the parameterization development of PBL processes over heterogeneous surface.

54 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES↗
NASA NTRS1981

Artificial stereo presentation of meteorological data fields

The innate capability to perceive three-dimensional stereo imagery has been exploited to present multidimensional meteorological data fields. Variations on an artificial stereo technique first discussed by Pichel et al. (1973) are used to display single and multispectral images in a vivid and easily assimilated manner. Examples of visible/infrared artificial stereo are given for Hurricane Allen and for severe thunderstorms on 10 April 1979. Three-dimensional output from a mesoscale model also is presented. The images may be viewed through the glasses inserted in the February 1981 issue of the Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society, with the red lens over the right eye. The images have been produced on the interactive Atmospheric and Oceanographic Information Processing System (AOIPS) at Goddard Space Flight Center. Stereo presentation is an important aid in understanding meteorological phenomena for operational weather forecasting, research case studies, and model simulations.

Hasler, A. F.↗
NASA NTRS1994

Data assimilation and model evaluation experiment datasets

The Institute for Naval Oceanography, in cooperation with Naval Research Laboratories and universities, executed the Data Assimilation and Model Evaluation Experiment (DAMEE) for the Gulf Stream region during fiscal years 1991-1993. Enormous effort has gone into the preparation of several high-quality and consistent datasets for model initialization and verification. This paper describes the preparation process, the temporal and spatial scopes, the contents, the structure, etc., of these datasets. The goal of DAMEE and the need of data for the four phases of experiment are briefly stated. The preparation of DAMEE datasets consisted of a series of processes: (1) collection of observational data; (2) analysis and interpretation; (3) interpolation using the Optimum Thermal Interpolation System package; (4) quality control and re-analysis; and (5) data archiving and software documentation. The data products from these processes included a time series of 3D fields of temperature and salinity, 2D fields of surface dynamic height and mixed-layer depth, analysis of the Gulf Stream and rings system, and bathythermograph profiles. To date, these are the most detailed and high-quality data for mesoscale ocean modeling, data assimilation, and forecasting research. Feedback from ocean modeling groups who tested this data was incorporated into its refinement. Suggestions for DAMEE data usages include (1) ocean modeling and data assimilation studies, (2) diagnosis and theoretical studies, and (3) comparisons with locally detailed observations.

Lai, Chung-Cheng A.↗
NASA NTRS2007

The Transition of NASA EOS Datasets to WFO Operations: A Model for Future Technology Transfer

The collocation of a National Weather Service (NWS) Forecast Office with atmospheric scientists from NASA/Marshall Space Flight Center (MSFC) in Huntsville, Alabama has afforded a unique opportunity for science sharing and technology transfer. Specifically, the NWS office in Huntsville has interacted closely with research scientists within the SPORT (Short-term Prediction and Research and Transition) Center at MSFC. One significant technology transfer that has reaped dividends is the transition of unique NASA EOS polar orbiting datasets into NWS field operations. NWS forecasters primarily rely on the AWIPS (Advanced Weather Information and Processing System) decision support system for their day to day forecast and warning decision making. Unfortunately, the transition of data from operational polar orbiters or low inclination orbiting satellites into AWIPS has been relatively slow due to a variety of reasons. The ability to integrate these high resolution NASA datasets into operations has yielded several benefits. The MODIS (MODerate-resolution Imaging Spectrometer ) instrument flying on the Aqua and Terra satellites provides a broad spectrum of multispectral observations at resolutions as fine as 250m. Forecasters routinely utilize these datasets to locate fine lines, boundaries, smoke plumes, locations of fog or haze fields, and other mesoscale features. In addition, these important datasets have been transitioned to other WFOs for a variety of local uses. For instance, WFO Great Falls Montana utilizes the MODIS snow cover product for hydrologic planning purposes while several coastal offices utilize the output from the MODIS and AMSR-E instruments to supplement observations in the data sparse regions of the Gulf of Mexico and western Atlantic. In the short term, these datasets have benefited local WFOs in a variety of ways. In the longer term, the process by which these unique datasets were successfully transitioned to operations will benefit the planning and implementation of products and datasets derived from both NPP and NPOESS. This presentation will provide a brief overview of current WFO usage of satellite data, the transition of datasets between SPORT and the N W S , and lessons learned for future transition efforts.

Darden, C.↗
DOE OSTI2024

Mesoscale Convective Systems Represented in High Resolution E3SMv2 and Impact of New Cloud and Convection Parameterizations

Mesoscale convective systems (MCSs) play an important role in modulating the global hydrological cycle, general circulation, and radiative energy budget. In this study, we evaluate MCS simulations in the second version of U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) Energy Exascale Earth System Model (E3SMv2). E3SMv2 atmosphere model (EAMv2) is run at the uniform 0.25? horizontal resolution. We track MCSs consistently in the model and observations using the PyFLEXTRKR algorithm, which defines MCS based on both cloud-top brightness temperature (Tb) and surface precipitation. Results from using Tb only to define MCS, commonly used in previous studies, are also discussed. Furthermore, sensitivity experiments are performed to examine the impact of new cloud and convection parameterizations developed for EAMv3 on simulated MCSs. Our results show that EAMv2 simulated MCS precipitation is largely underestimated in the tropics and contiguous United States. This is mainly attributed to the underestimated precipitation intensity in EAMv2. In contrast, the simulated MCS frequency becomes more comparable to observations if MCSs are defined only based on cloud-top Tb. The Tb-based MCS tracking method, however, includes many cloud systems with very weak precipitation which conflicts with the MCS definition. This result illustrates the importance of accounting for precipitation in evaluating simulated MCSs. We also find that the new physics parameterizations help increase the relative contribution of convective precipitation to total precipitation in the tropics, but the simulated MCS properties are generally not improved. This suggests that simulating MCSs will remain a challenge for the next version of E3SM.

Zhang, Meng↗
DOE OSTI2025

Convection-Permitting Ensembles of an Isolated Mountain Thunderstorm during RELAMPAGO/CACTI

Abstract The north–south-oriented Sierras de Córdoba (SDC) ridge in central Argentina is noted for initiating thunderstorms that may grow into intense mesoscale convective systems (MCSs). It also initiates more isolated, shorter-lived cells under weaker synoptic forcing. These cells are less impactful than MCSs but may be difficult to predict in convective-scale numerical weather prediction (NWP) due to their strong sensitivities to subgrid and partially resolved processes. To study the mechanisms and predictability of such cells, convection-permitting ensemble simulations were conducted of an isolated, diurnally forced SDC thunderstorm during Cloud, Aerosol, and Complex Terrain Interactions (CACTI)/Remote Sensing of Electrification, Lightning, and Mesoscale/Microscale Processes with Adaptive Ground Observations (RELAMPAGO). The rich observational data facilitated detailed ensemble verification, where dry biases in the surface energy balance and soil moisture were identified. These biases promoted rapid removal of convective inhibition and an early onset of precipitating cells over the SDC that were shallower and weaker than the observed cell. Correction, and then overcorrection, of the soil moisture bias in two successive ensembles was required to rectify the surface energy balance and improve the representation of the SDC cell. Nevertheless, substantial ensemble variability in convective precipitation was found, with some members producing more widespread convection than observed and others producing no deep convection at all. This variability was largely explained by a combination of thermodynamic and dynamic mechanisms, dominated by a positive sensitivity of convective precipitation to preconvective moist instability over the ridge. Secondary sensitivities were found to low-level upward mass flux and midlevel cross-barrier winds, the latter of which caused gravity waves with elevated downdrafts that tended to suppress incipient clouds.

Lopez, Andres [Department of Atmospheric and Ocean↗
NASA NTRS2010

NASA Giovanni Tool for Visualization and Analysis Support for the YOTC Program

The fundamental challenges to overcoming our shortcomings in understanding and modeling/predicting tropical convection have been two folds: I) the need to represent the broad range of scales applicable to the tropical organization problem (i.e. cumulus to planetary), and II) the lack of observations that adequately and simultaneously characterize this broad range of scales and that also provide three-dimensional information on thermodynamic, radiative and dynamical interactions, including cloud microphysical processes. Because the goal of Overview of Year Of Tropical Convection (YOTC) involves examining a scientifically complex, multi-scale "process", rather than documenting the characteristics of a single parameter (e.g., SST, cloud cover), YOTC has an IOP perspective that targets a period, May 2008 - April 2010, long enough to encompass many cases of tropical convection activity in many of its most challenging yet influential forms. This includes mesoscale and synoptic variability, easterly waves and hurricanes, convectively coupled waves, the MJO, and the culmination of these in terms of the monsoon, their interactions with the extra-tropics, and mean characteristics such as tropical-to-subtropical transitions. The YOTC time period and length are driven in part by the following: 1) keeping the multi-sensor/multi-platform and model-analyses data sets and associated infrastructure manageable, 2) facilitating a focused effort by the research and operational communities on a specific scientific problem, and 3) capitalizing on the recent key additions to the armada of satellites (e.g., CloudSat and CALIPSO).

Ostrenga, Dana↗
DOE OSTI2018

Mechanical Behavior of UO 2 at Sub-grain Length Scales: Quantification of Elastic, Plastic and Creep Properties via Microscale Testing

Techniques were developed to measure properties at sub-grain scales using depleted Uranium Oxide (d-UO2) samples heat-treated to obtain different grain sizes and oxygen stoichiometries, through three main tasks: 1) sample processing and characterization, 2) microscale and conventional testing and 3) modeling. Grain size and crystallography were characterized using Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM), in conjunction with Electron Backscattering Diffraction (EBSD) and Electron Channeling Contrast Imaging (ECCI). Grains were then carefully selected based on their crystallographic orientations to perform ex-situ micromechanical tests with samples machined via Focused Ion Beam (FIB), with emphasis on micro-cantilever bending. These experiments were performed under controlled atmospheres, to insure stoichiometry control, at temperatures up to 700 °C and allowed measurements involving elastic (effective Young’s modulus), plastic (critical resolved shear stresses) and creep (creep strain rates) behavior. Conventional compression experiments were performed simultaneously to compare with the ex-situ measurements and study potential size effects. Modeling was implemented using anisotropic elasticity and inelastic constitutive relations for plasticity and creep based on kinematics and kinetics of dislocation glide that account for the effects of crystal orientation, and stress. The models will be calibrated and validated using the experimental data. This project provided insight on correlations among stoichiometry, crystallography and mechanical behavior in advanced oxide fuels, provided valuable experimental data to validate and calibrate mesoscale fuel performance codes and also a framework to measure sub-grain scale mechanical properties that should be suitable for use with irradiated samples due to small volumes required. The goals and metrics of the ongoing study of thermo-mechanical behavior in depleted uranium dioxide (d-UO 2 ) outlined in this project have been concluded successfully, resulting in: 1) the successful fabrication, processing, and characterization of large-grained samples with various orientations (up to and including single crystals) having stoichiometric and hyper-stoichiometric O/U ratios; 2) formulation, calibration, and validation of a crystal plasticity constitutive model to describe the creep deformation of UO 2 at the sub-grain length scale (single crystal level) at intermediate temperatures; 3) the successful calibration of a crystal plasticity constitutive model to describe the elasto-plastic deformation of microcantilever beams, also at moderate temperatures. Samples were prepared from natural uranium oxide powder of production-quality provided by Areva. The powder was pressed in a die to a pressure of 100 MPa to produce green pellets with no sintering aids, lubricants, or any other additives. The green pellets were then heated up to 1700 °C under ultra-high purity argon atmosphere (~1 ppm O2). The atmosphere was then changed to 79% Argon, 21% O 2 and the temperature was held at 1700 °C for 2 hours to sinter the pellets under oxidative conditions [1] that are known to increase grain growth kinetics in UO 2 [2]. Samples were then cooled down under Ar-4%H2 atmosphere to reduce the samples back to stoichiometric UO 2 . For macro-scale procedures, testing of UO 2 samples with large grains was performed at 1200 °C using a modified load frame capable of applying dead-weight loads to ensure constant stress conditions, while displacement of the sample produced by the applied load was measured with high precision micrometers to obtain strains. Stress steps were used during testing and the strains were monitored to measured creep strain rates under steady state for each level of stress used, so that stress exponents could be obtained. The results of the mechanical testing, along with sample geometry and crystal orientation of the grains in the samples, as well as post-test sample characterization were used to formulate a viscoplastic model to account for steady state (stage II) creep behavior, along with basic assumptions from crystal plasticity and kinematic constraints due to testing fixtures. In the micro-scale, testing of microcantilever beams at temperatures ranging from 25 to 570 °C was performed in-situ with a scanning electron microscope with a special attachment to apply load and measure displacement while the samples were at temperature. The load-displacement curves obtained showed linear behavior before fracture for all temperatures attempted except 570 °C, where clear deviations from non-linearity were observed before fracture. These deviations were consistently observed for all samples tested for a given orientation. A viscoplastic model was used to account for the presence of inelastic strain, along with basic assumptions from crystal plasticity and beam theory. These models were kept as simple as possible, and results from tests performed in a set of samples with a given crystal orientation were used to calibrate the material constants for the model, while results from a different sample set were then used for validation, thus satisfying the conditions of all main tasks within the parameters of this project. Details of these efforts are outlined in this report.

11 NUCLEAR FUEL CYCLE AND FUEL MATERIALS↗
DOE OSTI2015

In situ SEM Study of Lithium Intercalation in individual V 2 O 5 Nanowires

Progress in rational engineering of Li-ion batteries requires better understanding of the electrochemical processes and accompanying transformations in the electrode materials on multiple length scales. In spite of recent progress in utilizing transmission electron microscopy (TEM) to analyze these materials, in situ scanning electron microscopy (SEM) was mostly overlooked as a powerful tool that allows probing these phenomena on the nano and mesoscale. In this paper, we report on in situ SEM study of lithiation in a V 2 O 5 -based single-nanobelt battery with ionic liquid electrolyte. Coupled with cyclic voltammetry measurements, in situ SEM revealed the peculiarities of subsurface intercalation, formation of solid-electrolyte interface (SEI) and electromigration of liquid. We observed that single-crystalline vanadia nanobelts do not undergo large-scale amorphization or fracture during electrochemical cycling, but rather transform topochemically with only a slight shape distortion. Lastly, the SEI layer seems to have significant influence on the lithium ion diffusion and overall capacity of the single-nanobelt battery.

25 ENERGY STORAGE↗