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Search indexed NASA NTRS and DOE OSTI research on propulsion, heat transfer, battery materials and energy systems. Follow report and document links to the original sources.

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At least 667 records · Page 37
All sourcesNASA NTRSDOE OSTI
DOE OSTI2022

High pressure phase transition and strength estimate in polycrystalline alumina during laser-driven shock compression

Alumina (Al 2 O 3 ) is an important ceramic material notable for its compressive strength and hardness. It represents one of the major oxide components of the Earth's mantle. Static compression experiments have reported evidence for phase transformations from the trigonal α-corundum phase to the orthorhombic Rh 2 O 3 (II)-type structure at ~90 GPa, and then to the post-perovskite structure at ~130 GPa, but these phases have yet to be directly observed under shock compression. In this work, we describe laser-driven shock compression experiments on polycrystalline alumina conducted at the Matter in Extreme Conditions endstation of the Linac Coherent Light Source. Ultrafast x-ray pulses (50 fs, 10 12 photons/pulse) were used to probe the atomic-level response at different times during shock propagation and subsequent pressure release. At 107 ± 8 GPa on the Hugoniot, we observe diffraction peaks that match the orthorhombic Rh 2 O 3 (II) phase with a density of 5.16 ± 0.03 g cm –3 . Upon unloading, the material transforms back to the α-corundum structure. Upon release to ambient pressure, densities are lower than predicted assuming isentropic release, indicating additional lattice expansion due to plastic work heating. Furthermore, using temperature values calculated from density measurements, we provide an estimate of alumina's strength on release from shock compression.

33 ADVANCED PROPULSION SYSTEMS↗
DOE OSTI2023

Crystal structure of elvitegravir Form II, C 23 H 23 ClFNO 5

The crystal structure of elvitegravir Form II has been solved and refined using synchrotron X-ray powder diffraction data, and optimized using density functional theory techniques. Elvitegravir Form II crystallizes in space group P2 1 (#4) with a = 11.54842(7), b = 14.04367(5), c = 13.33333(8) Å, β = 90.0330(6)°, V = 2162.427(14) Å 3 , and Z = 4. The crystal structure consists of alternating layers of parallel molecules perpendicular to the b-axis. The mean planes of the oxoquinoline ring systems in molecules 1 and 2 are 1(22)-1 and -1(22)1. Between the stacks are layers of the halogenated phenyl rings. These exhibit herringbone stacking. In each molecule, the carboxylic acid group forms a strong intramolecular O–H∙∙∙O hydrogen bond to the nearby carbonyl group. The hydroxyl group of each molecule forms a strong hydrogen bond to the carbonyl group of the carboxylic acid of the other molecule. These O–H∙∙∙O hydrogen bonds link the molecules into dimers, with a graph set R2,2(18) > a > c. The powder pattern has been submitted to ICDD for inclusion in the Powder Diffraction File™ (PDF®).

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2023

Role of Cations in the Cation-Driven Assembly Process and their Effect on the Charge Storage Properties of Bilayered Vanadium Oxide and Reduced Graphene Oxide Heterostructures in Alkali Ion Systems

Exfoliated δ-Li x V 2 O 5 ·nH 2 O (ex-LVO) and reduced graphene oxide (rGO) heterostructures were constructed using different assembling cations (i.e., Li⁺, Na⁺, and K⁺ ions). The ex-LVO and rGO nanoflakes were stacked together using a concentrated chloride solution of each assembling cation and vacuum annealed at 200 °C to form three distinct two-dimensional (2D) layered architectures. X-ray diffraction and thermogravimetric analysis confirmed that the assembling ions can control the interlayer spacing of the bilayered vanadium oxide (BVO) phase as well as impact the crystallographic water content, which in turn affects the electrochemical performance. Scanning electron microscopy, scanning transmission electron microscopy (STEM), electron energy-loss spectroscopy (EELS), and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy confirmed that a 2D heterointerface formed between LVO and rGO and that the cations used to assemble the heterostructure are trapped in the interlayer BVO region. High-resolution STEM imaging also showed the rGO dispersion throughout the LVO layers. Moreover, STEM-EELS identified a V 2 O 3 phase that forms along the rGO interface and can stabilize the materials during cycling. A charge storage mechanism analysis, combined with the galvanostatic intermittent titration technique, found that increased interlayer spacings of the BVO phase and using the assembling cations to define intercalation sites for identical charge-carrying ions lead to improved ion diffusion and increased capacities during cycling. Therefore, the Li⁺ and Na⁺ ion assembled heterostructures showed improved charge-carrying ion diffusion and charge storage capacities in each of their respective charge storage systems (i.e., Li-ion and Na-ion half-cells). In total, the cation used for heterostructure assembly can modify the final material structure and tailor the ion diffusion and charge storage capacity to tune its properties for the desired electrochemical system using a variety of 2D materials.

25 ENERGY STORAGE↗
DOE OSTI2023

Crystal plasticity finite element simulation of lattice rotation and x-ray diffraction during laser shock compression of tantalum

Here we present a crystal plasticity model tailored for high-pressure, high-strain-rate conditions that uses a multiscale treatment of dislocation-based slip kinetics. We use this model to analyze the pronounced plasticity-induced lattice rotations observed in shock-compressed polycrystalline tantalum via in situ x-ray diffraction. By making direct comparisons between experimentally measured and simulated texture evolution, we can explain how the details of the underlying slip kinetics control the degree of lattice rotation that ensues. Specifically, we show that only the highly nonlinear kinetics caused by dislocation nucleation can explain the magnitude of the rotation observed under shock compression. We demonstrate a good fit between our crystal plasticity model and x-ray diffraction data and exploit the data to quantify the dislocation nucleation rates that are otherwise poorly constrained by experiment in the dynamic compression regime.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2024

Electronic topological transitions in cadmium under pressure studied via theoretical and experimental x-ray absorption spectroscopy

Here, an electronic topological transition (ETT) in cadmium below 1 GPa is investigated in situ with experimental x-ray absorption spectroscopy and projecting calculated core-valence excitons onto the band structure. These projections are a useful application of the Bethe-Salpeter equation approach that considers many-body effects. The method described herein can be used for systems that are otherwise difficult to probe in situ; therefore, it provides a generalizable approach to identifying and understanding ETTs under high pressure. Although pressure-induced ETTs are often probed using indirect structural responses, our own x-ray diffraction and Raman studies suggest a second-order structural transition around 3 GPa but are largely insensitive to or inconclusive for the previously studied ETT in this region.

75 CONDENSED MATTER PHYSICS, SUPERCONDUCTIVITY AND↗
DOE OSTI2021

In-situ Nondestructive Evaluation of In-flight Particle Dynamics and Intrinsic Properties for Directed Energy Deposition

The objective of this exploratory project is to determine the feasibility of using laser diffraction, structured light 3D scanning, and x-ray diffraction for in-situ assessment and inspection of metal directed energy deposition (DED) that is applied to repair components such as engine parts in remanufacturing. During this project, we have successfully published or submitted at least one journal article for each subtask that we identified. One of our conference paper and presentation has won “best paper award” from Manufacturing & Design Division in the Institute of Industrial and Systems Engineers (IISE) Annual Conference 2021. Through this seed grant, we successfully validated the concepts and proved the three in-situ monitoring techniques work well to predict some defects generation during direct energy deposition. We submitted follow-up proposals to continue work on this topic.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2020

A complete grain-level assessment of the stress-strain evolution and associated deformation response in polycrystalline alloys

Polycrystalline alloys are used pervasively across structural applications contingent upon extensive experimental testing. A statistically representative number of tests are required to expose the variability in the material's performance, as a result of non-uniform microstructures and associated micromechanical fields. In a more direct means of capturing this pertinent information, multi-modal experimental techniques are presented to measure and track the complete micromechanical state, evolving during loading, of each and every grain within the regions of interest. Specifically, a combination of high-energy X-ray diffraction microscopy and digital image correlation coupled with electron backscatter diffraction are conducted on a specimen for each of the alloys, Haynes 282 and Ti7Al. The results of the multi-modal analysis definitively demonstrate that the degree of heterogeneity increases with deformation level and is used to assess the number of grains necessary for a representative volume element description of the stress state for each of these materials. Moreover, higher resolution imaging is used for identification of the slip system activity and subsequently used to study slip transmission events. An accurate knowledge of the resolved shear stress in adjacent grains (grain interactions) is demonstrated to be a key descriptor of the slip transmission events.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2026

Reaction Mechanism of Electrodeposited ε-MnO 2 : A Proton-Centered Pathway in Aqueous Zn-Ion Systems

Aqueous Zn/MnO 2 batteries have garnered significant interests owing to their abundance, high theoretical specific capacity, safety, and low cost. However, large-scale application of these systems is limited by the incomplete understanding of the MnO 2 reaction chemistry. The different crystal lattice structures among MnO 2 polymorphs contribute to the variations in reported reaction mechanisms. Among them, ε-MnO 2 polymorph, the dominant phase in electrolytic manganese dioxide (EMD), is notably observed during the charge cycles of aqueous Zn/MnO 2 batteries. Here, in this work, we investigate the electrochemical behavior of an ε-MnO 2 cathode synthesized via electrodeposition from a ZnSO 4 and MnSO 4 electrolyte, onto a 3-dimensional carbon cloth substrate. Proton intercalation emerges as the dominant charge storage mechanism, critically enabling the reversibility of ε-MnO 2 during cycling, as revealed by operando synchrotron X-ray diffraction and X-ray absorption spectroscopy. Additionally, a proton-coupled dissolution/redeposition pathway operates alongside minor Zn 2+ intercalation, as quantified by Rietveld refinement. Morphological and chemical heterogeneities are studied by transmission X-ray microscopy further validates this reaction mechanism. These mechanistic insights provide the foundation for rationally designing Zn/MnO 2 batteries with optimized proton dynamics and charge transfer, advancing these systems as a viable solution for safe, cost-effective grid-scale energy storage.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2020

Top Loading Helium Cryostat Integrated with High-Pressure Cell with Fast Remote Pressure Control (Final Report for SBIR Phase 1)

A large number of physical phenomena, such as superconductivity and quantum critical phenomena, often appear only at very low temperatures below 5 K. There is an immense interest to investigate these phenomena at high pressure as a means of tuning interatomic distances, and thus the interaction parameters controlling these phenomena, in a continuous and controlled fashion. The current P-T condition for neutron scattering experiments are limited to either relatively low pressures of about 2 GPa at temperatures below 5 K, or to relatively high temperatures at pressures or tens of GPa. The purpose of this research is to develop neutron sample environment instrumentation for reaching 10-20 GPa at 1-2K with rapid and reliable online pressure and temperature control (i.e. without having to interrupt the experiment). The ultimate goal of the project is to design an integrated fast-cooling low-temperature sample environment cryogenic system compatible with state of the art neutron diamond anvil cells suitable for single-crystal neutron scattering experiments for temperatures down to 2K and pressures of several tens of GPa. The integrated system will consist of top-loading Helium flow cryostat with in-situ sample alignment mechanisms, large-volume diamond anvil cells (DAC) made from novel superalloy Pascalloy and optimized for fast cooling and heating, and a compact remote pressure control mechanism for the DAC based on a novel concept of inflatable bellows integrated with a lever-arm based force amplifier. In Phase I, we have designed, manufactured, and tested prototypes of the novel compact force-amplified pneumatic pressure control mechanism for Neutron Diamond Anvil Cell (nDAC), which allows to use pneumatic bellows system for smooth remote pressure control in the nDAC inside a top-loading cryostat with bore size of 70 mm or larger. This allows significant minimum temperature decrease in remotely controlled nDAC from 5-10 K down to 2 K. We also studied mechanical properties of a novel non-magnetic superalloy Pascalloy with different heat-treatment conditions and preliminary results indicate that up to date this is probably the strongest and most suitable material for making more compact and lightweight cryogenic nDACs for neuron scattering experiments at extreme conditions, allowing much faster cooling and heating. Potential applications: The new developments will allow to create a wide range of compact Diamond Anvil Cells for neutron diffraction which can reach several tens of GPA pressure at 2-4 K while preserving accurate remote pressure control capabilities. The new concepts can be used for developing sample environment instrumentation outside the neutron scattering field. The new development have very strong potential for expanding experimental capabilities in materials sciences and have high commercialization potential. The proposed new cryogenic high-pressure system or any of its individual components will be in high demand not only in neutron scattering facilities, but also at synchrotron beamlines and other high-pressure research facilities around the world.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2021

Evolution of texture and internal stresses within polycrystalline rock salt using in situ 3D synchrotron computed tomography and 3D X-ray diffraction

Over time rock salt caverns have been extensively used as reliable repositories for hazardous waste such as nuclear waste, oil or compressed gases. Undisturbed rock salt deposits in nature are usually impermeable and have very low porosity. However, rock salt formations under excavation stresses can develop crack networks, which increase their porosities; and in the case of a connected crack network within the media, rock salt may become permeable. Although the relationship between the permeability of rock salt and the applied stresses has been reported in the literature, a microscopic study that investigates the properties influencing this relationship, such as the evolution of texture and internal stresses, has yet to be conducted. This study employs in situ 3D synchrotron micro-computed tomography and 3D X-ray diffraction (3DXRD) on two small-scale polycrystalline rock salt specimens to investigate the evolution of the texture and internal stresses within the specimens. The 3DXRD technique measures the 3D crystal structure and lattice strains within rock salt grains. The specimens were prepared under 1D compression conditions and have shown an initial {111} preferred texture, a dominant {110}$\langle1\bar{1}0\rangle$ slip system and no fully connected crack network. The {111} preferred texture under the unconfined compression experiment became stronger, while the {111}$\langle1\bar{1}0\rangle$ slip system became more prominent. The specimens did not have a fully connected crack network until applied axial stresses reached about 30 MPa, at a point where the impermeability of the material becomes compromised due to the development of multiple major cracks.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2020

Exploring competitive metal binding and crystallization of UO 2 2+ and Cu 2+ tetrahydrofuran-2,3,4,5-tetracarboxylic acid complexes

Solvent extractions are used to separate actinide elements from fission products in nuclear waste streams and the successful isolation of specific species utilize subtle differences in metal ligand binding. Metal ligand binding is also important in crystallization of metal organic materials and herein we explore the importance of competitive binding in the tetrahydrofuran-2,3,4,5-tetracarboxylic acid (THFTCA) system. This ligand has been previously evaluated for the selective extraction of uranium from other lanthanides and actinides and in the current research, we evaluate the crystallization of uranyl-THFTCA complexes in the presence of Cu 2+ , Sr 2+ , Th 4+ , and Ce 3+ . Three major phases were formed in the crystallization experiments and characterized with single crystal X-ray diffraction, powder X-ray diffraction, thermogravimetric analysis, and Raman spectroscopy. Two of the resulting phases were novel (UTHF1 ((C 4 H 10 N 2 )[UO 2 (C 8 H 8 O 9 ) 2 ]∙2H 2 O) and UTHF2 (Na[(UO 2 )(C 8 H 5 O 9 )(H 2 O)]∙ 3.5 H 2 O)), whereas the third (CuTHF1) was previously reported in the literature. Raman spectroscopy was utilized to evaluate spectral changes in the mother liquor of UTHF1, UTHF2, and CuTHF1 over time to assess the crystallization process. Further, isothermal titration calorimetry was used to determine the binding constants for UO 2 2+ and Cu 2+ to the THFTCA ligand in solution and evaluate the role of competitive metal binding in this system. The thermodynamic parameters and the crystallographic data were used to justify the formation of a weaker UO 2 2+ -THFTCA complex. Formation of a weaker UO 2 2+ -THFTCA complex supports our findings that UTHF1 only forms in homomeric systems, but suggests that the crystallization of UTHF2 and CuTHF1 is reliant on the presence of additional counter ions and ligands to change the amount of available THFTCA ligand.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗
DOE OSTI2023

Separation of K + and Bi 3+ displacements in a Pb-free, monoclinic piezoelectric at the morphotropic phase boundary

The best piezoelectric properties of any perovskite oxide known are found in the solid solution of the relaxor Pb (Mg 1/3 Nb 2/3 )O 3 and ferroelectric PbTiO 3 . Despite its impressive properties, this system has limited analogy. We present the compositional exploration of the Pb-free analogue (1-x)(K 1/2 Bi 1/2 )(Mg 1/3 Nb 2/3 )O 3 -x(K 1/2 Bi 1/2 )TiO 3 (KBMN-KBT). We locate the morphotropic phase boundary between x = 0.86 and 0.88 changing from Cm to Pm symmetry and the optimally performing composition at x = 0.88. We report a piezoelectric figure of merit (d 33 *) of 192 pm V —1 from strain measurements. Diffraction methods reveal disordered displacements of K + and Bi 3+ which persist from the KBMN endmember through multiple changes in symmetry. Rearrangement of the Bi 3+ displacements along the uncommon [011] c direction drives the physical response. Ferroelectric, dielectric, and piezoresponse force microscopy are used to study the progression of physical properties through the MPB and attribute the mechanism to a polarization rotation. Taking account for local, short-range, and average structural features yield a balanced perspective on the structure and properties of this system, isolating the driving force within this system to the Bi 3+ bonding configuration. This work yields a strong analogy to the Pb-based analogue, and provides strategies for further optimization.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2022

Probing charge density in materials with atomic resolution in real space

The charge distribution in materials at the nanoscale can often explain the origin of macroscopic properties such as localized conductivity or the plasmonic response and illuminate more fundamental changes in the microscopic structure such as changes in chemical bonding characteristics. Previously, direct visualization of the charge density with high spatial resolution was often a missing link in the formation of structure–property relationships, especially in heterogeneous materials systems. Furthermore, recent advancements in microscopy technology have enabled researchers to visualize the charge distribution in materials down to subatomic length scales. In this Technical Review, we discuss the developments in high-resolution real-space charge distribution imaging using diffraction techniques and electron microscopy, with a focus on the recent advancement of four-dimensional scanning transmission electron microscopy, electron holography, and applications to materials interfaces.

Electronic properties and materials↗
DOE OSTI2020

Polymorphous nature of cubic halide perovskites

Many common crystal structures can be described by a single (or very few) repeated structural motif (“monomorphous structures”) such as octahedron in cubic halide perovskites. Interestingly, recent accumulated evidence suggests that electronic structure calculations based on such macroscopically averaged monomorphous cubic ($\textit{Pm} – 3m$) halide perovskites obtained from x-ray diffraction, show intriguing deviations from experiment. These include systematically too small band gaps, dielectric constants dominated by the electronic, negative mixing enthalpy of alloys, and significant deviations from the measured pair distribution function. We show here that a minimization of the systems $\textit{T}$ = 0 internal energy via density functional theory reveals a distribution of different low-symmetry local motifs, including tilting, rotations, and B-atom displacements (“polymorphous networks”). This is found only if one allows for larger-than-minimal cell size that does not geometrically exclude low symmetry motifs. As the (super) cell size increases, the energy is lowered relative to the monomorphous cell, and stabilizes after ~32 formula units (≥160 atoms) are included. Being a result of nonthermal energy minimization in the internal energy without entropy, this correlated set of displacements must represent the intrinsic geometry preferred by the underlying chemical bonding (lone pair bonding), and as such has a different origin than the normal, dynamic thermal disorder modeled by molecular dynamics. Indeed, the polymorphous network, not the monomorphous ansatz, is the kernel structure from which high temperature thermal agitation develops. The emerging physical picture is that the polymorphous network has an average structure with high symmetry, yet the local structural motifs have low symmetries. In this work we find that, compared with monomorphous counterparts, the polymorphous networks have significantly lower predicted total energies, larger band gaps, and ionic dominated dielectric constants, and agree much more closely with the observed pair distribution functions. An analogous polymorphous situation is found in the paraelectric phase of a few cubic oxide perovskites where local polarization takes the role of local displacements in halide perovskites, and in the paramagnetic phases of a few 3 d oxides where the local spin configuration takes that role.

75 CONDENSED MATTER PHYSICS, SUPERCONDUCTIVITY AND↗
DOE OSTI2020

Thermal, mechanical, and electrical properties of LSCo/mullite composite contact materials for solid oxide fuel cells

Lanthanum strontium cobaltite (LSCo) is considered as a good candidate cathode contact material for solid oxide fuel cells, due to high electrical conductivity. However, LSCo has a very large coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE) than the cells and metallic interconnects. As a result, poor mechanical stability is expected during thermal cycling. To minimize the CTE mismatch, we investigate a composite approach involving mixing LSCo with an inert material of low CTE, such as mullite at volume fractions from 0.1 to 0.4. Composite’s CTE shows a decreasing trend with increasing mullite volume fractions, and is consistent with model predictions. X-ray powder diffraction analysis of sintered LSCo/mullite composites exhibits no presence of other phases for samples aged for 500h at 800oC, indicating chemical compatibility. Electrical conductivity by a 4-pt method shows a decreasing trend with increasing mullite content. Contact strength of as-sintered and thermally cycled samples show that only the composite with 0.4 volume fraction has a measurable strength; the other composites have no strength. Overall, the composite approach is demonstrated in the LSCo/mullite system to lower the CTE and hence achieve thermal cycle stability. The addition of the inert phase to the LSCo matrix; however, also reduces the electrical conductivity.

Contact materials, LSCo, mullite, CTE, electrical ↗
DOE OSTI2022

Design and construction of a quantum matter synthesizer

The quantum matter synthesizer (QMS) is a new quantum simulation platform in which individual particles in a lattice can be resolved and re-arranged into arbitrary patterns. The ability to spatially manipulate ultracold atoms and control their tunneling and interactions at the single-particle level allows full control of a many-body quantum system. We present the design and characterization of the QMS, which integrates into a single ultra-stable apparatus a two-dimensional optical lattice, a moving optical tweezer array formed by a digital micromirror device, and site-resolved atomic imaging. We demonstrate excellent mechanical stability between the lattice and tweezer array with relative fluctuations below 10 nm, diffraction-limited imaging at a resolution of 655 nm, and high-speed real-time control of the tweezer array at a 2.52 kHz refresh rate, which will be adopted to realize fast rearrangement of atoms. The QMS also features new technologies and schemes, such as nanotextured anti-reflective windows and all-optical long-distance transport of atoms.

47 OTHER INSTRUMENTATION↗
DOE OSTI2021

Grain reorientation and stress-state evolution during cyclic loading of an α -Ti alloy below the elastic limit

Here, high-energy synchrotron x-rays are used to track grain-averaged lattice reorientation and stress-state evolution in Ti–7Al as it is cyclically loaded to 90% of its macroscopic yield stress. This evolution provides clear indication of accumulating plastic strain even though the sample never exceeded the elastic limit. The largest changes in lattice orientation and stress state are observed following the first cycle then evolution continues at a lower rate with subsequent cycles. Variation of the axes about which lattice reorientation occurs is found to be highly dependent on the maximum resolved shear stress and corresponding activation of various families of slip systems.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2022

A process optimization framework for laser direct energy deposition: Densification, microstructure, and mechanical properties of an Fe-Cr alloy

Laser Direct Energy Deposition (DED) is a metal additive manufacturing technique with the ability to fabricate large and complex parts through deposition of metal powders. However, achieving high-density parts and targeted build heights using DED can be challenging due to the large number of highly sensitive process variables. This work proposes a robust fabrication parameter optimization framework to generate process maps for primary parameters in DED, including laser power, scan speed, mass flow rate, hatch spacing, and layer height. Simple single-track experiments were utilized to map out the parameter space, and a combination of geometric criteria for hatch spacing and layer height were proposed to determine parameter sets that achieve both targeted build heights and mitigate porosity formation. Using this framework, specimens with >99 % density and consistent mechanical properties were successfully fabricated over a wide range of process parameters for an Fe-9wt.%Cr (Fe9Cr) alloy, a surrogate for radiation damage-resistant reduced activation ferritic/martensitic (RAFM) steels. Processing these materials using DED is of particular interest in the development of plasma facing components for nuclear fusion applications. The microstructure and mechanical properties of as-printed Fe9Cr were characterized using optical and electron microscopy, X-ray diffraction, and uniaxial tensile tests. As-printed Fe9Cr displayed ~25 % elongation and ultimate tensile strengths of up to 475 MPa which is comparable to similar wrought alloys. Finally, the proposed framework will allow for accelerated DED parameter optimization for novel alloy systems, as well as open the possibility for local microstructure control while simultaneously mitigating defect formation.

42 ENGINEERING↗