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NASA NTRS1982

Extension of laboratory-measured soil spectra to field conditions

Spectral responses of two glaciated soils, Chalmers silty clay loam and Fincastle silt loam, formed under prairie grass and forest vegetation, respectively, were measured in the laboratory under controlled moisture equilibria using an Exotech Model 20C spectroradiometer to obtain spectral data in the laboratory under artificial illumination. The same spectroradiometer was used outdoors under solar illumination to obtain spectral response from dry and moistened field plots with and without corn residue cover, representing the two different soils. Results indicate that laboratory-measured spectra of moist soil are directly proportional to the spectral response of that same field-measured moist bare soil over the 0.52 micrometer to 1.75 micrometer wavelength range. The magnitudes of difference in spectral response between identically treated Chalmers and Fincastle soils are greatest in the 0.6 micrometers to 0.8 micrometer transition region between the visible and near infrared, regardless of field condition or laboratory preparation studied.

Stoner, E. R.↗

NASA NTRS1982

Microwave remote sensing of soil moisture, volume 1

Multifrequency sensor data from NASA's C-130 aircraft were used to determine which of the all weather microwave sensors demonstrated the highest correlation to surface soil moisture over optimal bare soil conditions, and to develop and test techniques which use visible/infrared sensors to compensate for the vegetation effect in this sensor's response to soil moisture. The L-band passive microwave radiometer was found to be the most suitable single sensor system to estimate soil moisture over bare fields. The perpendicular vegetation index (PVI) as determined from the visible/infrared sensors was useful as a measure of the vegetation effect on the L-band radiometer response to soil moisture. A linear equation was developed to estimate percent field capacity as a function of L-band emissivity and the vegetation index. The prediction algorithm improves the estimation of moisture significantly over predictions from L-band emissivity alone.

Mcfarland, M. J.↗

NASA NTRS1983

Simulating sunflower canopy temperatures to infer root-zone soil water potential

A soil-plant-atmosphere model for sunflower (Helianthus annuus L.), together with clear sky weather data for several days, is used to study the relationship between canopy temperature and root-zone soil water potential. Considering the empirical dependence of stomatal resistance on insolation, air temperature and leaf water potential, a continuity equation for water flux in the soil-plant-atmosphere system is solved for the leaf water potential. The transpirational flux is calculated using Monteith's combination equation, while the canopy temperature is calculated from the energy balance equation. The simulation shows that, at high soil water potentials, canopy temperature is determined primarily by air and dew point temperatures. These results agree with an empirically derived linear regression equation relating canopy-air temperature differential to air vapor pressure deficit. The model predictions of leaf water potential are also in agreement with observations, indicating that measurements of canopy temperature together with a knowledge of air and dew point temperatures can provide a reliable estimate of the root-zone soil water potential.

Choudhury, B. J.↗

NASA NTRS1982

Delineation of cold-prone areas using nighttime SMS/GOES thermal data Effects of soils and water

Infrared digital data from geostationary satellites were used to demonstrate the usefulness of remotely sensed surface temperature data to delineate microscale and mesoscale climates. Nocturnal winter data (December-February) from 1976-77 to 1978-79 over Florida revealed noticeable contrasts in surface temperature patterns. Colder areas were associated with low soil moisture content in the upper layers of excessively drained and well drained sandy soils, whereas warmer areas were associated with bodies of water, wetlands, or poorly drained soils. An unexpected surface temperature pattern for one night where the north-central Florida climatic zone was colder than the north Florida climatic zone was found to be caused by differences in antecedent frontal rainfall. Differences in surface radiant energy fluxes over these two areas at 0200 EST 20 December 1977, based on average satellite-sensed surface temperatures, were compared with differences in soil heat fluxes that were computed from 1.5 m climatological temperatures and soil thermal properties by use of a simplified surface energy balance equation.

Chen, E.↗

NASA NTRS1983

Chemical weathering and diagenesis of a cold desert soil from Wright Valley, Antarctica - An analog of Martian weathering processes

Weathering, diagenesis, and chemical alteration of a soil profile from the Dry Valleys of Antarctica are investigated as an analog to soil development within the Martian regolith. Soil samples from a soil pit one meter deep on Prospect Mesa, Wright Valley, are examined for their major element concentrations, water-soluble cations and anions, carbon, sulfur, and water concentrations, and related petrographic characteristics of weathering in a cold, dry environment. A petrographic study of the samples suggests that most silicate mineral and lithic fragments exhibit some degree of alteration. Chemical alteration occurs both in samples above and within the permanently frozen zone. The concentrations of water-soluble cations, for example, Na(+), K(+), Ca(2+), and anions, Cl(-), SO4(2-), NO3(-), are found to decrease significantly from the surface to the permanently frozen zone, suggesting a major movement of water-soluble species. It is also found that enrichments in secondary mineral abundances correlate with the water soluble ion concentrations. The formation of zeolites is seen throughout the soil column; these, it is thought, may be reservoirs for volatile storage within the regolith.

Gibson, E. K.↗

NASA NTRS1983

Effects of vegetation cover on the microwave radiometric sensitivity to soil moisture

The reduction in sensitivity of the microwave brightness temperature to soil moisture content due to vegetation cover is analyzed using airborne observations made at 1.4 and 5 GHz. The data were acquired during six flights in 1978 over a test site near Colby, Kansas. The test site consisted of bare soil, wheat stubble, and fully mature corn fields. The results for corn indicate that the radiometric sensitivity to soil moisture S decreases in magnitude with increasing frequency and with increasing angle of incidence (relative to nadir). The sensitivity reduction factor, defined in terms of the radiometric sensitivities for bare soil and canopy-covered conditions Y = 1 - Scan/Ss was found to be equal to 0.65 for normal incidence at 1.4 GHz, and increases to 0.89 at 5 GHz. These results confirm previous conclusions that the presence of vegetation cover may pose a serious problem for soil moisture detection with passive microwave sensors.

Ulaby, F. T.↗

NASA NTRS1984

Inversion algorithms for the microwave remote sensing of soil moisture. Experiments with swept frequency microwaves

Two experiments were performed employing swept frequency microwaves for the purpose of investigating the reflectivity from soil volumes containing both discontinuous and continuous changes in subsurface soil moisture content. Discontinuous moisture profiles were artificially created in the laboratory while continuous moisture profiles were induced into the soil of test plots by the environment of an agricultural field. The reflectivity for both the laboratory and field experiments was measured using bi-static reflectometers operated over the frequency ranges of 1.0 to 2.0 GHz and 4.0 to 8.0 GHz. Reflectivity models that considered the discontinuous and continuous moisture profiles within the soil volume were developed and compared with the results of the experiments. This comparison shows good agreement between the smooth surface models and the measurements. In particular the comparison of the smooth surface multi-layer model for continuous moisture profiles and the yield experiment measurements points out the sensitivity of the specular component of the scattered electromagnetic energy to the movement of moisture in the soil.

Hancock, G. D.↗

NASA NTRS1984

Role of soil moisture in maintaining droughts

The influence of soil moisture on the persistence of an ongoing drought was investigated. The case study of drought of the summer of 1980 was selected. The difference in the simulation of two identical twin runs: one with the climatological normal soil moisture and the other with anomalous soil moisture for drought conditions, were examined on the mean monthly circulation. It is found that a reduction in soil moisture did produce a corresponding reduction in precipitation. The pattern of the rainfall anomaly however, was not identical to the soil moisture (evapotranspiration) anomaly but had a good resemblance with observations.

Sud, Y. C.↗

NASA NTRS1983

Spectral reflectance of surface soils - A statistical analysis

The relationship of the physical and chemical properties of soils to their spectral reflectance as measured at six wavebands of Thematic Mapper (TM) aboard NASA's Landsat-4 satellite was examined. The results of performing regressions of over 20 soil properties on the six TM bands indicated that organic matter, water, clay, cation exchange capacity, and calcium were the properties most readily predicted from TM data. The middle infrared bands, bands 5 and 7, were the best bands for predicting soil properties, and the near infrared band, band 4, was nearly as good. Clustering 234 soil samples on the TM bands and characterizing the clusters on the basis of soil properties revealed several clear relationships between properties and reflectance. Discriminant analysis found organic matter, fine sand, base saturation, sand, extractable acidity, and water to be significant in discriminating among clusters.

Crouse, K. R.↗

NASA NTRS1986

Preliminary evaluation of the SIR-B response to soil moisture, surface roughness, and crop canopy cover

Two predawn ascending data-takes by the Shuttle Imaging Radar-B (SIR-B) were used to evaluate the effects of surface roughness, crop canopy, and soil moisture on radar backscatter. The two images, separated by three days, were both obtained at 30-deg local angle of incidence, but with opposite azimuth viewing directions. The imagery was externally calibrated with respect to the radar backscattering coefficient sigma(0) via response to arrays of point and area-extended targets of known radar cross section. Three land-cover classes: (1) corn, (2) corn stubble and plowed bare soil, and (3) disked bare soil, soybeans, soybean stubble, alfalfa, and clover could be readily separated for either observation date on the basis of image tone alone. The dependence of sigma(0) on the surface roughness and canopy brightness inhibits the capability of SIR to globally estimate the near-surface soil moisture from the value of sigma(0) for single date observations, unless the surface roughness or canopy cover conditions are accounted for. However, within given ranges of these conditions, the sigma(0) was found to be highly correlated with the soil moisture.

Dobson, M. C.↗

NASA NTRS1987

The nature of the meteoritic components of Apollo 16 soil, as inferred from correlations of iron, cobalt, iridium, and gold with nickel

The Apollo 16 soil concentrations of Ni, Fe, Co, Ir, and Au were studied to determine the correlations with Ni. The correlations obtained indicate that the variation in the siderophile element concentrations in Apollo 16 soils result from the variation in the concentration of a Fe-Ni metal (with the mean composition of 5.6 pct Ni and 0.36 pct Co) that contributes about 0.4-0.5 pct to a typical soil from Apollo 16. It is shown that the siderophile elements of the 'ancient meteorite component' of Anders et al. (1973) and Hertogen et al. (1977) are located in the grains of Fe-Ni metal that in turn are contained in noritic impact melt breccias produced about 3.9 Ga ago. The ancient Fe-Ni is different from the metal of ordinary chondrites by having lower Ni/Co, Ir/Ni, and Ir/Au ratios. It is shown that Ni in the Apollo 16 soil is contributed approximately equally by the 'ancient meteorite component' and the 'micrometeorite component' (dominated by carbonaceous chondrites); however, most of the variation in Ni concentration results from the variation of the ancient Fe-Ni metal among samples of Apollo 16 soil.

Korotev, Randy L.↗

NASA NTRS1987

Concerning the relationship between evapotranspiration and soil moisture

The relationship between the evapotranspiration and soil moisture during the drying, supply-limited phase is studied. A second scaling parameter, based on the evapotranspirational supply and demand concept of Federer (1982), is defined; the parameter, referred to as the threshold evapotranspiration, occurs in vegetation-covered surfaces just before leaf stomata close and when surface tension restricts moisture release from bare soil pores. A simple model for evapotranspiration is proposed. The effects of natural soil heterogeneities on evapotranspiration computed from the model are investigated. It is observed that the natural variability in soil moisture, caused by the heterogeneities, alters the relationship between regional evapotranspiration and the area average soil moisture.

Wetzel, Peter J.↗

NASA NTRS1987

Soil moisture estimation using GOES-VISSR infrared data - A case study with a simple statistical method

Five days of clear sky observations of Kansas and Nebraska are used to examine the statistical relationship between soil moisture and infrared surface temperature observations taken from a geosynchronous satellite. Linear regression is used to relate soil moisture to surface temperature and other variables that represent wind speed, vegetation cover, and low-level temperature advection. Results show good agreement between estimated and observed soil moisture features on each of the 5 days. The average coefficient of determination for five pseudoindependent tests in which the test day is held out of the regression is 0.71. It is shown that a depletion coefficient of 0.92, when used to compute antecedent precipitation index (API), produces the best correlation between API and soil moisture as inferred from GOES thermal infrared data. By averaging daily predicted values over the 5-day rain-free case study period, 92 percent of the variance of the morning surface temperature change is explained by a simple multiple linear regression with all independent variables, or, alternatively, 85 percent of the observed variance in API is explained. It is concluded that this approach can distinguish at least four classes of soil wetness, but the necessity for measurement of surface advection may limit its usefulness in remote areas.

Wetzel, Peter J.↗

NASA NTRS1988

Soil erosion and causative factors at Vandenberg Air Force Base, California

Areas of significant soil erosion and unvegetated road cuts were identified and mapped for Vandenberg Air Force Base. One hundred forty-two eroded areas (most greater than 1.2 ha) and 51 road cuts were identified from recent color infrared aerial photography and ground truthed to determine the severity and causes of erosion. Comparison of the present eroded condition of soils (as shown in the 1986 photography) with that in historical aerial photography indicates that most erosion on the base took place prior to 1928. However, at several sites accelerated rates of erosion and sedimentation may be occurring as soils and parent materials are eroded vertically. The most conspicuous erosion is in the northern part of the base, where severe gully, sheet, and mass movement erosion have occurred in soils and in various sedimentary rocks. Past cultivation practices, compounded by highly erodible soils prone to subsurface piping, are probably the main causes. Improper range management practices following cultivation may have also increased runoff and erosion. Aerial photography from 1986 shows that no appreciable headward erosion or gully sidewall collapse have occurred in this area since 1928.

Butterworth, Joel B.↗

NASA NTRS1988

Use of LANDSAT images of vegetation cover to estimate effective hydraulic properties of soils

The estimation of the spatially variable surface moisture and heat fluxes of natural, semivegetated landscapes is difficult due to the highly random nature of the vegetation (e.g., plant species, density, and stress) and the soil (e.g., moisture content, and soil hydraulic conductivity). The solution to that problem lies, in part, in the use of satellite remotely sensed data, and in the preparation of those data in terms of the physical properties of the plant and soil. The work was focused on the development and testing of a stochastic geometric canopy-soil reflectance model, which can be applied to the physically-based interpretation of LANDSAT images. The model conceptualizes the landscape as a stochastic surface with bulk plant and soil reflective properties. The model is particularly suited for regional scale investigations where the quantification of the bulk landscape properties, such as fractional vegetation cover, is important on a pixel by pixel basis. A summary of the theoretical analysis and the preliminary testing of the model with actual aerial radiometric data is provided.

Eagleson, Peter S.↗

NASA NTRS1988

Samples from Martian craters: Origin of the Martian soil by hydrothermal alteration of impact melt deposits and atmospheric interactions with ejecta during crater formation

The origin of the Martian soil is an important question for understanding weathering processes on the Martian surface, and also for understanding the global geochemistry of Mars. Chemical analyses of the soil will provide an opportunity to examine what may be a crustal average, as studies of loess on the Earth have demonstrated. In this regard the origin of the Martian soil is also important for understanding the chemical fractionations that have affected the composition of the soil. Several processes that are likely to contribute to the Martian soil are examined.

Newsom, Horton E.↗

NASA NTRS1988

Microwave remote sensing of soil moisture

Knowledge of soil moisture is important to many disciplines, such as agriculture, hydrology, and meteorology. Soil moisture distribution of vast regions can be measured efficiently only with remote sensing techniques from airborne or satellite platforms. At low microwave frequencies, water has a much larger dielectric constant than dry soil. This difference manifests itself in surface emissivity (or reflectivity) change between dry and wet soils, and can be measured by a microwave radiometer or radar. The Microwave Sensors and Data Communications Branch is developing microwave remote sensing techniques using both radar and radiometry, but primarily with microwave radiometry. The efforts in these areas range from developing algorithms for data interpretation to conducting feasibility studies for space systems, with a primary goal of developing a microwave radiometer for soil moisture measurement from satellites, such as EOS or the Space Station. These efforts are listed.

Shiue, J. C.↗

NASA NTRS1988

Soil Transport Implement

The design of the Soil Transport Implement (STI) for SKITTER is presented. The purpose of STI is to provide a protective layer of lunar soil for the lunar modules. The objective is to cover the lunar module with a layer of soil approximately two meters thick within a two week period. The amount of soil required to cover the module is roughly 77 dump truck loads or three million earth pounds. A spinning disk is employed to accomplish its task. STI is an autonomous, teleoperated system. The design incorporates the latest advances in composite materials and high strength, light weight alloys to achieve a high strength to weight ratio. The preliminary design should only be used to assess the feasibility of employing a spinning wheel as a soil transport implement. A mathematical model of the spinning wheel was used to evaluate the performance of this design.

Dixon, William↗