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NASA NTRS1974

Magnetic fields of Mars and Venus - Solar wind interactions

Recent USSR studies of the magnetic field and solar wind flow in the vicinity of Mars and Venus confirm earlier U.S. reports of a bow shock wave developed as the solar wind interacts with these planets. Mars 2 and 3 magnetometer experiments report the existence of an intrinsic planetary magnetic field, sufficiently strong to form a magnetopause, deflecting the solar wind around the planet and its ionosphere. This is in contrast to the case for Venus, where it is assumed to be the ionosphere and processes therein which are responsible for the solar wind deflection. An empirical relationship appears to exist between planetary dipole magnetic moments and their angular momentum for the Moon, Mars, Venus, Earth, and Jupiter. Implications for the magnetic fields of Mercury and Saturn are discussed.

Ness, N. F.↗
NASA NTRS1974

Interpretation of the polarization of Venus

The linear polarization of sunlight reflected by Venus is analyzed by comparing observations with extensive multiple scattering computations. The analysis establishes that Venus is veiled by a cloud or haze layer of spherical particles. The refractive index of the particles is about 1.44 at 0.55 microns with a normal dispersion, the refractive index decreasing from about 1.46 at 0.365 microns to 1.43 at 0.99 microns. The cloud particles have a narrow size distribution with a mean radius of about 1 micron; specifically, the effective radius of the size distribution is approximately 1.05 microns and the effective variance is about 0.07. The particles exist at a high level in the atmosphere, with the optical thickness unity occurring where the pressure is about 50 mb. The particle properties deduced from the polarization eliminate all but one of the cloud compositions which have been proposed for Venus. A concentrated solution of sulfuric acid provides good agreement with the polarization data.

Hansen, J. E.↗
NASA NTRS1975

The clouds of Venus

The physical and chemical properties of the clouds of Venus are reviewed, with special emphasis on data that are related to cloud dynamics. None of the currently-popular interpretations of cloud phenomena on Venus is consistent with all the data. Either a considerable fraction of the observational evidence is faulty or has been misinterpreted, or the clouds of Venus are much more complex than the current simplistic models. Several lines of attack are suggested to resolve some of the contradictions. A sound understanding of the clouds appears to be several years in the future.

Young, A. T.↗
NASA NTRS1974

Infrared spectra of Venus

A historical account of observations of Venus and their interpretation is given. The major constituent of the atmosphere on Venus (CO2) was detected spectroscopically forty years ago, and minor constituents (CO, HF, HCl) have been found more recently. The infrared spectra also provide a means of studying the motions of her cloudly atmosphere. The composition of the clouds has been sought in the reflection spectrum of Venus, and some of the evidence for their nature is discussed.

Young, L. G.↗
NASA NTRS1974

Nature of the Venus clouds as derived from their polarization

The linear polarization of sunlight reflected by Venus is analyzed by comparing observations with extensive multiple scattering computations. The analysis establishes that Venus is veiled by a cloud or haze layer of particles which have a narrow size distribution with a mean radius of about 1 micron. The refractive index of the particles is 1.44 at 0.55 micron wavelength with a small normal dispersion, the refractive index decreasing from the ultraviolet toward the infrared. The particles exist at a high level in the atmosphere, with the optical thickness unity occurring where the pressure is about 50 mb. The particle properties deduced from the polarization eliminate all but one of the cloud compositions which have been proposed for Venus. A concentrated solution of sulfuric acid provides good agreement with the polarization data.

Hansen, J. E.↗
NASA NTRS1974

Ground-based observations of Mars and Venus water vapor during 1972 and 1973

The Venus water vapor line at 8197.71 A has been monitored at several positions on the disk of Venus and at phase angles between 22 and 91 degrees. Comparisons are made between the water vapor abundances, the presence of UV features, and the CO2 abundances determined from near simultaneous observations of CO2 bands at the same positions on the disk of Venus. Two periods of the Martian year have been monitored. The first period was during and after the great 1971 dust storm (L8 = 280 to 20 degrees or summer in the southern hemisphere). The results obtained are compared to the Mariner 9 IRIS and Mars 3 observations made during the same period. During the second period (L8 = 124 to 266 degrees) observations were made to follow the seasonal latitudinal and diurnal changes in the water vapor abundance in the Martian atmosphere. Studies of the latitudinal and diurnal water vapor distributions indicate that the location of maximum and minimum abundances for this season are positively correlated with surface temperature variations.

Barker, E. S.↗
NASA NTRS1975

The clouds of Venus

The physical and chemical properties of the clouds of Venus are reviewed with special emphasis on data that are related to cloud dynamics. None of the currently popular interpretations of cloud phenomena on Venus is consistent with all the data. Either a considerable fraction of the observational evidence is faulty or has been misinterpreted, or the clouds of Venus are much more complex than the current simplistic models. Several lines of attack are suggested to resolve some of the contradictions.

Young, A. T.↗
NASA NTRS1975

A determination of the composition of the Venus clouds from aircraft observations in the near infrared

Summary of the evidence showing that the first optical depth of the Venus cloud layer is composed of a water solution of sulfuric acid, including earlier aircraft observations of Venus' reflectivity in the region from 1 to 4 microns obtained at a phase angle of 120 deg. Analyses of these aircraft results indicated that of all the proposed cloud candidates only a sulfuric acid solution with a concentration of 75% or more H2SO4 by weight was consistent with the observed 3-micron cloud feature. Aircraft observations of Venus are presented which were obtained in the same spectral region at a phase angle of 40 deg and in the region from 3 to 6 microns at a phase angle of 136 deg. Comparing the two sets of observations in the region from 1 to 4 microns, a striking phase effect is found: the reflectivity is much lower in the 3-micron region and there is a much more marked decline between 1.3 and 2.5 microns for the data obtained at the smaller phase angle. The observations made at the 40-deg phase angle are consistent with the theoretical behavior of a sulfuric acid cloud and imply that the sulfuric acid is present to at least many tens of optical depth below the cloud tops. Arguments concerning the concentration of the solution are reviewed, and it is concluded that the best current estimate is about 85% H2SO4 by weight.

Pollack, J. B.↗
NASA NTRS1975

Venus - Chemical and dynamical processes in the stratosphere and mesosphere

Photochemical models for the Venus clouds are presented and discussed. We illustrate models for sulfuric acid density as a function of altitude based on a proposed photochemical scheme. Emphasis is placed on two competing removal mechanisms for sulfur atoms above the visible clouds: S + O2 yields SO + O, and S + COS yields S2 + CO. The first reaction (which forms the major oxygen sink in the visible cloud region) requires reasonable O2 concentrations and leads to sulfuric acid production. The second reaction occurs in regions where O2 is severely depleted and leads to elemental sulfur production. Quantitative estimates of the balance between these two competing processes are presented together with a discussion of the complete sulfur and oxygen cycles on the planet. We propose that the dark regions in the ultraviolet of Venus are oxygen-depleted regions where a significant amount of ultraviolet-absorbing sulfur is being produced. We also discuss observations of particle densities on Venus and their implications for vertical mixing rates.

Prinn, R. G.↗
NASA NTRS1976

Requirements and capabilities for planetary missions. Venus orbiter imaging radar 1983, volume 3

Two spacecraft will be launched in mid-1983 and inserted into a circular polar orbit around Venus about 6 months later. Elliptical orbits are also under consideration. The objective of the mission is imagery of the planet, at about the 200-m resolution level, with continuous altimetry and topographical studies. Science investigations will determine surface characteristics of the planet, study the surface/atmosphere interactions, and determine Venus' mass distribution. A plausible vehicle is based on a Mariner Jupiter/Saturn derivative; others being considered include a Lunar Polar Orbiter derivative and a Pioneer Venus Orbiter derivative.

Kindt, D. H.↗
NASA NTRS1976

Erosion and the rocks of Venus

Photographs of the surface of Venus returned by the Venera 9 and 10 spacecraft have revealed the presence of smooth and angular rockline forms. Two mechanisms previously suggested (Sagan, 1975) for erosion of crater ramparts on the surface of Venus might also explain the erosion of rocks. Chemical weathering by the hydrochloric, hydrofluoric, and sulfuric acids present in the atmosphere of Venus may have been sufficient to erode angular projections of silicous rocks. Alternatively, the contours of rocks containing such low-melting materials as NaOH, KOH, HgS and KNO2 may have softened as the result of exposure to the high surface temperatures of the planet.

Sagan, C.↗
NASA NTRS1976

Far infrared spectral observations of Venus, Mars and Jupiter

Far-IR spectra of Venus, Mars and Jupiter between 46 and 115 microns have been obtained at a resolving power of about 10, observing from the NASA Lear Jet at an altitude of 13.7 km. The results are calibrated with lunar observations and show Mars and Venus to have relatively constant brightness temperatures over this wavelength region, with Venus appearing somewhat warmer at longer wavelengths. The brightness temperature of Jupiter decreases slightly toward longer wavelengths.

Ward, D. B.↗
NASA NTRS1976

Ballistic trajectories for Mercury Orbiter missions using optimal Venus flybys, a systematic search

The considered approach, which has been previously studied by Hollenbeck et al. (1973) makes use of a Venus gravity assist. The search for ideal trajectories for Mercury Orbiter missions involves a determination of trajectories with the lowest possible Mercury approach speed. Ideal Venus-to-Mercury transfers and opportunities are discussed. The second part of the reported investigation is concerned with the determination of suitable trajectories for the trip from earth to Venus. On the basis of the obtained data it appears that the best ten trajectories can deliver spacecraft from a low of 720 kg to a high of 1230 kg to orbits with 500 km periapse and 24 hr periods. The corresponding flight times are 790 days and 1243 days.

Bender, D. F.↗
NASA NTRS1976

High spectral resolution ground-based observations of Venus in the 450-1250 cm sup-1 region

The thermal emission of Venus was recorded during the winter of 1970-1971, and in 1973 using the 2.7m telescope at McDonald Observatory. The double beam Michelson interferometer installed at the Coude focus was used. The spectrum was recorded between 400/cm and 1,400/cm. For the 1970 observations, the spectral resolution was 0.25/cm and the linear spatial resolution was 3/4 of the disk of Venus. In 1973 the spectral resolution was 0.20/cm with a spatial resolution 1/3 of the planetary disk. In addition to Venus, the moon, the sky adjacent to each object, and the zenith sky were recorded to help eliminate the absorption and emission effects of the earth's atmosphere.

Kunde, V. G.↗
NASA NTRS1976

Scattering in the atmosphere of Venus. I - Line profiles and curves of growth for isotropic scattering

Line profiles and curves of growth were computed for both reflected and transmitted radiation for typical lines in CO2 bands (in the photographic infrared) which occur in the spectrum of Venus. In the model, the pressure variation with altitude was considered, and the base of the cloud deck was set at the 2 bar level. The temperature was held constant at 250 K, and a Voigt profile was used for the line shape. It was also assumed that the scale height of the cloud particles was equal to the scale height of the gas. The calculations were made for four values of the scattering optical thickness (0.1, 1.0, and 100) using a continuum single-scattering albedo of 0.9975 (which gives a Bond albedo of 0.896 for a scattering optical thickness of 100, the value observed for Venus at these wavelengths). Curves of growth are also presented for reflected radiation which has been averaged over the visible disk for three values of the Venus phase angle (0, 86, and 166 deg).

Young, L. D. G.↗
NASA NTRS1977

Far-infrared spectral observations of Venus, Mars, and Jupiter

Spectra of Venus, Mars, and Jupiter between 45 and 115 micron have been obtained at a resolving power of about 10, observing from the NASA Lear Jet at an altitude of 13.7 km. The results are calibrated with lunar observations, and show Mars and Venus to have relatively constant brightness temperatures over this wavelength region, with Venus appearing somewhat warmer at longer wavelengths. The brightness temperature of Jupiter decreases slightly toward longer wavelengths.

Ward, D. B.↗
NASA NTRS1977

The Pioneer Venus program

Mission timetables, spacecraft, scientific objectives, and payloads of the two mission, Orbiter and Multiprobe, planned for launch and encounter with Venus during the 1978 Venus mission opportunity are described. Basically, the Orbiter mission has the goal of global mapping of the clouds, atmosphere and ionosphere of Venus by remote sensing and radio occultation, global studies by in situ measurements of the upper atmosphere and ionosphere and solar wind-ionosphere interaction region, and determination of gravitational field harmonics from perturbations of the spacecraft orbit. The Multiprobe mission will study the nature and composition of the clouds, the structure of the atmosphere, the circulation pattern, and the characteristics of the planetary environmental interaction with the solar wind.

Colin, L.↗
NASA NTRS1977

An improved Venus cloud model

An inhomogeneous cloud model for Venus is presented in which a (transparent) sulfuric acid aerosol extends above the tropopause, but an (absorbing) sulfur aerosol consisting of much larger particles does not. It is shown that the temperature dependence of the absorption spectrum of sulfur, combined with the lapse rate in the planet's atmosphere, can explain the color of Venus. A simple 'black-white' radiative-transfer model is developed, the spectral reflectance of the cloud model is computed for the 60-km level in Marov's (1972) model atmosphere, and strong evidence is obtained that sulfur is the UV absorber on Venus. The wavelength variation of contrast in UV cloud features is analyzed, and absorption is found to increase with depth at every wavelength due to the inward increase in temperature. The black-white model is applied to CO2 absorption, variations in CO2 and UV absorption with phase angle are compared, and line profiles are calculated for pressure-broadened CO2 lines. The theoretical results are compared with Venera 9 and 10 data.

Young, A. T.↗