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NASA NTRSDate not supplied

The Use of Immersion Rigs for High Temperature Hydrogen Exposure Testing within the Nuclear Thermal Rocket Element Environmental Simulator (NTREES): Thermal Soak Rig (TSR)

The Nuclear Thermal Rocket Element Environmental Simulator (NTREES) facility was purpose constructed to perform non-nuclear evaluations of nuclear thermal propulsion (NTP) system fuel materials and structures within prototypic thermochemical environments. This system has been utilized steadily in its ability to subject test specimens to thermochemical and thermohydraulic environments simulating that of an operating nuclear rocket engine. Fission heat is simulated by induction power and experiments are conducted within a ~1000 psi pressure vessel. Hydrogen is conventionally passed through the heated fuel surrogate test specimen while pressure, temperature, and gas species data are collected at various points along the experiment. In order to test fuel and material coupon samples, a class of test apparatus named “immersion rigs” are being developed and employed to more rapidly test these smaller and more technically challenging test specimen. One example of a promising potential fuel structure, Tristructural-isotropic (TRISO) particles, presents unique challenges for testing of this type. TRISO fuel micro-particles are spheroids typically on the order of 500 – 1000 μm in diameter, and exposing a batch sample to hot hydrogen requires purpose-built special test equipment. Thusly, an immersion rig was developed and successfully demonstrated to expose ~1 g of micro-particles to hydrogen gas at temperatures and pressures relevant to NTP systems for the purpose of fuel evaluation. The rig, comprised primarily of graphite and pure tungsten, houses in its core a batch of micro-particles between pucks of porous silicon carbide (SiC). This approach permits gas flow while simultaneously retaining the particles in place. Herein is a discussion of the design, analysis, fabrication, and testing of the NTREES Thermal Soak Rig (TSR).

Space Nuclear Propulsion↗

NASA NTRS1988

Turbulent transport of He II in active and passive phase separators using slit devices and porous media

The turbulent transport mode of vapor liquid phase separators (VLPS) for He II has been investigated comparing passive porous plug separators with active phase separators (APS) using slits of variable flow paths within a common frame of reference. It is concluded that the basic transport regimes in both devices are identical. An integrated Gorter-Mellink (1949) equation, found previously to predict VLPS results of porous plugs, is employed to analyze APS data published in the literature. It is found that the Gorter-Mellink flow rate parameter for 9-micron and 14-micron APS slit widths are relatively independent of the slit width, having a rate constant of about 9 + or - 10 percent. This agrees with the early heat flow results for He II entropy transport at zero net mass flow in wide capillaries and slits.

Yuan, S. W. K.↗

DOE OSTI2024

Electrochemical Conversion of CO 2 to Methyl Formate in a Flow Electrolyzer with Mixed Propylene Carbonate/Methanol Catholyte

Despite the promise of electrochemical carbon dioxide reduction as a technology for the production of clean fuels and decarbonization of the chemical industry, research has mostly focused on aqueous systems with a relatively limited set of products that have been achieved via electrosynthesis. Increasingly, CO 2 electroreduction in nonaqueous solvents is being pursued to develop new avenues for expanding the suite of products that can be made with high selectivity. CO 2 reduction in alcohols coupled with in situ esterification to produce esters is one such route that utilizes nonaqueous electrolyte. To be practical, such electrochemical syntheses need to be translated to a high-performance reactor such as a flow electrolyzer. However, many organic solvents, such as alcohols, wet and flood porous electrodes, thus impeding reactor performance. In this work, methanol was mixed with propylene carbonate as a catholyte for a gas-fed CO 2 flow electrolyzer that avoided cathode flooding. Simultaneously, a dual aqueous anolyte was used for water oxidation as a scalable and sustainable anodic half-reaction. The performance effect of methanol concentration, catholyte acidity, CO 2 flow rate, and dilute water in the catholyte were investigated. With 10 vol % methanol in 90 vol % propylene carbonate, 63% faradaic efficiency for methyl formate ester product was sustained without cathode flooding. However, improvements are still needed to lower the cell resistance and further increase the operating current density.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗

DOE OSTI2022

Process and apparatus for continuous production of porous structures

An apparatus and process are presented for continuous production of metal-based micro-porous structures of pore sizes from 0.3 nm to 5.0 μm from a green part of characteristic diffusion mass transfer dimension less than 1 mm through chemical reactions in a continuous flow of gas substantially free of oxygen. The produced micro-porous structures include i) thin porous metal sheets of thickness less than 200 μm and pore sizes in the range of 0.1 to 5.0 μm, ii) porous ceramic coating of thickness less than 40 μm and ceramic particle sizes of 200 nm or less on a porous metal-based support structures of pore sizes in the range of 0.1 to 5 μm.

Liu, Wei↗

NASA NTRS1991

Phenomenological and experimental study of the thermal response of low density silica ablators to high enthalpy plasma flows

A complete analysis of the melting-ablator governing equations is carried out for porous ablators with the purpose of establishing an approximate analytical model capable of determining surface recession, temperature, and heat flux as well as in-depth temperature profiles. A detailed dimensional analysis of the melt-flow governing equations is performed for parameters applicable to high-enthalpy flows. Results of arc-jet flow experiments performed on NASA Reusable Surface Insulation materials of different densities and over a range of stagnation pressures and heat fluxes are discussed. A dimensionless correlation for melt run-offs is derived in terms of material and flow parameters; however, it is pointed out that the accuracy of the current data is sufficient to conclude the compliance with the model.

Henline, William D.↗

NASA NTRS1993

Hypersonic engine component experiments in high heat flux, supersonic flow environment

A major concern in advancing the state-of-the-art technologies for hypersonic vehicles is the development of an aeropropulsion system capable of withstanding the sustained high thermal loads expected during hypersonic flight. Even though progress has been made in the computational understanding of fluid dynamics and the physics/chemistry of high speed flight, there is also a need for experimental facilities capable of providing a high heat flux environment for testing component concepts and verifying/calibrating these analyses. A hydrogen/oxygen rocket engine heat source was developed at the NASA Lewis Research Center as one element in a series of facilities at national laboratories designed to fulfill this need. This 'Hot Gas Facility' is capable of providing heat fluxes up to 450 w/sq cm on flat surfaces and up to 5,000 w/sq cm at the leading edge stagnation point of a strut in a supersonic flow stream. Gas temperatures up to 3050 K can also be attained. Two recent experimental programs conducted in this facility are discussed. The objective of the first experiment is to evaluate the erosion and oxidation characteristics of a coating on a cowl leading edge (or strut leading edge) in a supersonic, high heat flux environment. Macrophotographic data from a coated leading edge model show progressive degradation over several thermal cycles at aerothermal conditions representative of high Mach number flight. The objective of the second experiment is to assess the capability of cooling a porous surface exposed to a high temperature, high velocity flow environment and to provide a heat transfer data base for a design procedure. Experimental results from transpiration cooled surfaces in a supersonic flow environment are presented.

Gladden, Herbert J.↗

NASA NTRS1997

Porous and Microporous Honeycomb Composites as Potential Boundary-Layer Bleed Materials

Results of an experimental investigation are presented in which the use of porous and microporous honeycomb composite materials is evaluated as an alternate to perforated solid plates for boundary-layer bleed in supersonic aircraft inlets. The terms "porous" and "microporous," respectively, refer to bleed orifice diameters roughly equal to and much less than the displacement thickness of the approach boundary-layer. A Baseline porous solid plate, two porous honeycomb, and three microporous honeycomb configurations are evaluated. The performance of the plates is characterized by the flow coefficient and relative change in boundary-layer profile parameters across the bleed region. The tests were conducted at Mach numbers of 1.27 and 1.98. The results show the porous honeycomb is not as efficient at removing mass compared to the baseline. The microporous plates were about equal to the baseline with one plate demonstrating a significantly higher efficiency. The microporous plates produced significantly fuller boundary-layer profiles downstream of the bleed region for a given mass flow removal rate than either the baseline or the porous honeycomb plates.

Davis, D. O.↗

NASA NTRS2010

Large-Flow-Area Flow-Selective Liquid/Gas Separator

This liquid/gas separator provides the basis for a first stage of a fuel cell product water/oxygen gas phase separator. It can separate liquid and gas in bulk in multiple gravity environments. The system separates fuel cell product water entrained with circulating oxygen gas from the outlet of a fuel cell stack before allowing the gas to return to the fuel cell stack inlet. Additional makeup oxygen gas is added either before or after the separator to account for the gas consumed in the fuel cell power plant. A large volume is provided upstream of porous material in the separator to allow for the collection of water that does not exit the separator with the outgoing oxygen gas. The water then can be removed as it continues to collect, so that the accumulation of water does not impede the separating action of the device. The system is designed with a series of tubes of the porous material configured into a shell-and-tube heat exchanger configuration. The two-phase fluid stream to be separated enters the shell-side portion of the device. Gas flows to the center passages of the tubes through the porous material and is then routed to a common volume at the end of the tubes by simple pressure difference from a pumping device. Gas flows through the porous material of the tubes with greater ease as a function of the ratio of the dynamic viscosity of the water and gas. By careful selection of the dimensions of the tubes (wall thickness, porosity, diameter, length of the tubes, number of the tubes, and tube-to-tube spacing in the shell volume) a suitable design can be made to match the magnitude of water and gas flow, developed pressures from the oxygen reactant pumping device, and required residual water inventory for the shellside volume.

Vasquez, Arturo↗

NASA NTRS1975

Working model of the London moment readout system

The operating characteristics of a porous plug which has liquid helium on one side and which is pumped on under vacuum on the other side are discussed. The system investigated consists of a container of liquid helium which is well isolated, and the only means for mass flow out of the container is through a plug mode of porous material. The plug was assumed to have liquid helium on the container side while the other side of the plug is evacuated. Three cases were considered: (1) perfect evacuation with zero pressure, (2) evacuation through a chocked orifice, and (3) evacuation through a long, small diameter pipe with heating. Mass flow rates were determined along with mass flow at temperature above the lambda point temperature. Solutions were obtained for normal and superfluid velocity.

Hendricks, J. B.↗

DOE OSTI2022

Finite Element Modeling of Diffusion in Fractured Porous Media by Using Hierarchical Material Properties

Abstract Fractured porous media challenge modeling approaches due to high computational costs and excessive mesh refinement imposed by the extreme scale variability of fractures and the heterogeneity of the surrounding porous rock. To overcome such difficulties, we utilize the hierarchical finite element method ( Hi ‐FEM) that has been developed previously to simulate the electrical potential distribution in complex geologic environments. The method employs the hierarchical basis functions in classical finite element analysis to enable representation of material properties on each dimensional component of a given 3D unstructured finite element, thereby inherently allowing for interactions at the boundary between fracture and a host rock. In this study, we extend its application to transient fluid flow and heat conduction in the Laplace domain. Time‐domain flow solutions are obtained by numerical inverse Laplace transform. We evaluate the accuracy of the method using different flow models and demonstrate its robustness for large‐scale, rock mass models featuring complex fracture networks. Moreover, for the computation of nodal Darcian velocity fields in fractured porous media where the fractures are represented as 2D features, a new approach that employs the Yeh's Galerkin model for both volume and facet elements is proposed. Results show that Hi ‐FEM can produce accurate flow solutions for fractured porous media without any need of coupling or transfer mechanism while still being computationally economical and numerically robust, even for large‐scale simulations.

Beskardes, G. D.↗

NASA NTRS1988

Slip effects associated with Knudsen transport phenomena in porous media

Porous media used in phase separators and thermomechanical pumps have been the subject of characterization efforts based on the Darcy permeability of laminar continuum flow. The latter is not always observed at low speed, in particular at permeabilities below 10 to the -9th/squared cm. The present experimental and theoretical studies address questions of slip effects associated with long mean free paths of gas flow at room temperature. Data obtained are in good agreement, within data uncertainty, with a simplified asymptotic Knudsen equation proposed for porous plugs on the basis of Knudsen's classical flow equation for long mean free paths.

Frederking, T. H. K.↗

NASA NTRS1995

The 3D Navier-Stokes analysis of a Mach 2.68 bifurcated rectangular mixed-compression inlet

The supersonic diffuser of a Mach 2.68 bifurcated, rectangular, mixed-compression inlet was analyzed using a three-dimensional (3D) Navier-Stokes flow solver. A two-equation turbulence model, and a porous bleed model based on unchoked bleed hole discharge coefficients were used. Comparisons were made with experimental data, inviscid theory, and two-dimensional Navier-Stokes analyses. The main objective was to gain insight into the inlet fluid dynamics. Examination of the computational results along with the experimental data suggest that the cowl shock-sidewall boundary layer interaction near the leading edge caused a substantial separation in the wind tunnel inlet model. As a result, the inlet performance may have been compromised by increased spillage and higher bleed mass flow requirements. The internal flow contained substantial waves that were not in the original inviscid design. 3D effects were fairly minor for this inlet at on-design conditions. Navier-Stokes analysis appears to be an useful tool for gaining insight into the inlet fluid dynamics. It provides a higher fidelity simulation of the flowfield than the original inviscid design, by taking into account boundary layers, porous bleed, and their interactions with shock waves.

Mizukami, M.↗

DOE OSTI2022

Transport of polymer-coated metal–organic framework nanoparticles in porous media

Abstract Injecting fluids into deep underground geologic structures is a critical component to development of long-term strategies for managing greenhouse gas emissions and facilitating energy extraction operations. Recently, we reported that metal–organic frameworks are low-frequency, absorptive-acoustic metamaterial that may be injected into the subsurface to enhance geophysical monitoring tools used to track fluids and map complex structures. A key requirement for this nanotechnology deployment is transportability through porous geologic media without being retained by mineral-fluid interfaces. We used flow-through column studies to estimate transport and retention properties of five different polymer-coated MIL-101(Cr) nanoparticles (NP) in siliceous porous media. When negatively charged polystyrene sulfonate coated nanoparticles (NP-PSS-70K) were transported in 1 M NaCl, only about 8.4% of nanoparticles were retained in the column. Nanoparticles coated with polyethylenimine (NP-PD1) exhibited significant retention (> 50%), emphasizing the importance of complex nanoparticle-fluid-rock interactions for successful use of nanofluid technologies in the subsurface. Nanoparticle transport experiments revealed that nanoparticle surface characteristics play a critical role in nanoparticle colloidal stability and as well the transport.

58 GEOSCIENCES↗

DOE OSTI2025

Strength and thermal shock resistance of porous reaction-bonded silicon nitride by direct nitriding of binder jet additively manufactured silicon

The direct nitridation of binder jet additively manufactured silicon to produce porous silicon nitride was explored. The Taguchi Design of Experiments method was used to systematically study the effect of time, temperature, and nitrogen flow rate on the direct nitriding of binder jet additively manufactured silicon to produce porous reaction-bonded silicon nitride (RBSN). Highly porous (61%) samples with high conversion (99%) to silicon nitride were achieved using a thermal profile that utilized two isothermal holds. Further, it was shown that these samples exhibited thermal shock resistance and a low coefficient of thermal expansion. These results indicate that RBSN is readily achievable through additive manufacturing.

Ceramics↗

DOE OSTI2022

High Fidelity CFD Simulations Supporting the KP-FHR

Kairos Power, LLC, is developing its version of the Fluoride-cooled High-temperature Reactor, the KP-FHR. The design uses a pebble bed core with fluoride salt as a coolant. The pebbles used in the KP-FHR have a diameter of 4 cm, with a shell fuel region where TRISO particles are embedded. A Pebble bed core design is adopted by several Gen IV reactors, They boast many benefits, such as fuel integrity, highly efficient heat transfer, and passive safety. However, it is challenging to accurately predict temperature and flow inside a pebble bed. Traditional approaches use the porous media model, which regards the pebble bed as a continuous medium, but with different temperature fields representing different levels, such as the fluid temperature, pebble surface temperature, and pebble center temperature. Empirical heat transfer correlations are adopted to calculate the heat transfer coefficient between different phases. However, empirical correlations are usually validated with experimental data, which usually lacks detail inside the pebble bed. The available experimental data is also generally at a high Reynolds number, which falls outside of the conditions of KP-FHR. Explicit computational fluid dynamics (CFD) simulations of randomly packed pebble beds have only become feasible recently. This is thanks to the rapid development of computational power and scalable algorithms. In this work, we used the Spectral Element Method (SEM) CFD code NekRS to simulate the randomly packed pebble bed in a cylindrical container. NekRS, which is the GPU variant of Nek5000, but refactored to utilize the computational power of GPUs using the OCCA library to run on hybrid architecture high performance computing systems. It was initially developed with the libParamunal library, but truncated and tuned for large-scale turbulence simulation. As a result, the SEM reaches higher precision with the same degrees of freedom by using a high-order Lagrange polynomial basis distributed on Gauss-Lobatto-Legendre quadrature inside each element, compared to lower-order methods, such the Finite Volume Method and Finite Element Method. The report is divided into five parts. We start with a general discussion of the pebble bed reactor, along with a specific investigation into the KP-FHR. The second part presents the numerical methodology. In the third part, we study a modular pebble bed with 1741 pebbles in a container of 7 pebble-diameter radius. Beyond LES simulations done by NekRS, we also leveraged the thermal radiation model in OpenFOAM to study heat transfer under no-forced-flow scenarios. Then, in the fourth part we simulated a pebble bed similar to the size of the Hermes Test Reactor. The total number of pebbles is in these simulations is 34,374. The container radius is 14 pebble-diameters. Finally, the report concludes in part five, with a discussion of future work.

21 SPECIFIC NUCLEAR REACTORS AND ASSOCIATED PLANTS↗

NASA NTRS2006

Experimental and Computational Analysis of Unidirectional Flow Through Stirling Engine Heater Head

A high efficiency Stirling Radioisotope Generator (SRG) is being developed for possible use in long-duration space science missions. NASA s advanced technology goals for next generation Stirling convertors include increasing the Carnot efficiency and percent of Carnot efficiency. To help achieve these goals, a multi-dimensional Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) code is being developed to numerically model unsteady fluid flow and heat transfer phenomena of the oscillating working gas inside Stirling convertors. In the absence of transient pressure drop data for the zero mean oscillating multi-dimensional flows present in the Technology Demonstration Convertors on test at NASA Glenn Research Center, unidirectional flow pressure drop test data is used to compare against 2D and 3D computational solutions. This study focuses on tracking pressure drop and mass flow rate data for unidirectional flow though a Stirling heater head using a commercial CFD code (CFD-ACE). The commercial CFD code uses a porous-media model which is dependent on permeability and the inertial coefficient present in the linear and nonlinear terms of the Darcy-Forchheimer equation. Permeability and inertial coefficient were calculated from unidirectional flow test data. CFD simulations of the unidirectional flow test were validated using the porous-media model input parameters which increased simulation accuracy by 14 percent on average.

Wilson, Scott D.↗

NASA NTRS1982

Effects of Reynolds number on orifice induced pressure error

Data previously reported for orifice induced pressure errors are extended to the case of higher Reynolds number flows, and a remedy is presented in the form of a porous metal plug for the orifice. Test orifices with apertures 0.330, 0.660, and 1.321 cm in diam. were fabricated on a flat plate for trials in the NASA Langley wind tunnel at Mach numbers 0.40-0.72. A boundary layer survey rake was also mounted on the flat plate to allow measurement of the total boundary layer pressures at the orifices. At the high Reynolds number flows studied, the orifice induced pressure error was found to be a function of the ratio of the orifice diameter to the boundary layer thickness. The error was effectively eliminated by the insertion of a porous metal disc set flush with the orifice outside surface.

Plentovich, E. B.↗

NASA NTRS1974

Noise reduction in transonic wind tunnels

The phenomena of background noise generation in transonic wind tunnels are analyzed. In unsteady aerodynamic tests, background disturbances create problems because the instrumentation senses them in addition to the fluctuations generated by the aerodynamic flow over wind-tunnel models. Calibrations of 25 facilities show that the amplitudes of the background fluctuations are excessive. In porous-wall facilities, one noise source consists of porous-wall edgetones that are generated by the passage of air over the holes. A flow model is developed that yields the frequencies of these oscillations. Test section boundary layers and hole configurations govern the occurrence of these fluctuations. In slotted-wall facilities, a noise source is the slotted-wall shearing caused by the air flowing along the openings. In both types of wind tunnels, other flow mechanisms also cause disturbances, and these phenomena are described. Noise-reduction methods are outlined which will provide valid unsteady aerodynamic results.

Mccanless, G. F., Jr.↗