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NASA NTRS2005

Lightning NOx Production and Its Consequences for Tropospheric Chemistry

Cloud-resolving case-study simulations of convective transport and lightning NO production have yielded results which are directly applicable to the design of lightning parameterizations for global chemical transport models. In this work we have used cloud-resolving models (the Goddard Cumulus Ensemble Model (GCE) and MMS) to drive an off-line cloud-scale chemical transport model (CSCTM). The CSCTM, in conjunction with aircraft measurements of NO x in thunderstorms and ground-l;>ased lightning observations, has been used to constrain the amount of NO produced per flash. Cloud and chemistry simulations for several case studies of storms in different environments will be presented. Observed lightning flash rates have been incorporated into the CSCTM, and several scenarios of NO production per intracloud (IC) and per cloud-to-ground (CG) flash have been tested for each storm. The resulting NOx mixing ratios are compared with aircraft measurements taken within the storm (typically the anvil region) to determine the most likely NO production scenario. The range of values of NO production per flash (or per meter of lightning channel length) that have been deduced from the model will be shown and compared with values of production in the literature that have been deduced from observed NO spikes and from anvil flux calculations. Results show that on a per flash basis, IC flashes are nearly as productive of NO as CG flashes. This result simplifies the lightning parameterization for global models (ie., an algorithm for estimating the IC/CG ratio is not necessary). Vertical profiles of lightning NOx mass at the end of the 3-D storm simulations have been summarized to yield suggested profiles for use in global models. Estimates of mean NO production per flash vary by a factor of three from one simulated storm to another. When combined with the global flash rate of 44 flashes per second from NASA's Optical Transient Detector (OTD) measurements, these estimates and the results from other techniques yield global NO production rates of2-9 TgN/year. Simulations of the photochemistry over the 24 hours following a storm has been performed to determine the additional ozone production which can be attributed to lightning NO. Convective transport of HOx precursors leads to the generation of a HOx plume which substantially aids the downstream ozone production.

Pickering, Kenneth E.↗

NASA NTRS2012

The Impact of Dry Saharan Air on Tropical Cyclone Intensification

The controversial role of the dry Saharan Air Layer (SAL) on tropical storm intensification in the Atlantic will be addressed. The SAL has been argued in previous studies to have potential positive influences on storm development, but most recent studies have argued for a strong suppressing influence on storm intensification as a result of dry air, high stability, increased vertical wind shear, and microphysical impacts of dust. Here, we focus on observations of Hurricane Helene (2006), which occurred during the NASA African Monsoon Multidisciplinary Activities (NAMMA) experiment. Satellite and airborne observations, combined with global meteorological analyses depict the initial environment of Helene as being dominated by the SAL, although with minimal evidence that the SAL air actually penetrated to the core of the disturbance. Over the next several days, the SAL air quickly moved westward and was gradually replaced by a very dry, dust-free layer associated with subsidence. Despite the wrapping of this very dry air around the storm, Helene intensified steadily to a Category 3 hurricane suggesting that the dry air was unable to significantly slow storm intensification. Several uncertainties remain about the role of the SAL in Helene (and in tropical cyclones in general). To better address these uncertainties, NASA will be conducting a three year airborne campaign called the Hurricane and Severe Storm Sentinel (HS3). The HS3 objectives are: To obtain critical measurements in the hurricane environment in order to identify the role of key factors such as large-scale wind systems (troughs, jet streams), Saharan air masses, African Easterly Waves and their embedded critical layers (that help to isolate tropical disturbances from hostile environments). To observe and understand the three-dimensional mesoscale and convective-scale internal structures of tropical disturbances and cyclones and their role in intensity change. The mission objectives will be achieved using two Global Hawk (GH) Unmanned Airborne Systems (UASs) with separate comprehensive environmental and over-storm payloads. The GH flight altitudes (>16.8 km) allow overflights of most convection and sampling of upper-tropospheric winds. Deployments from Goddard s Wallops Flight Facility and ~26-hour flight durations will provide coverage of the entire Atlantic Ocean basin, and on-station times up to 5-22 h depending on storm location. Deployments will be in September of 2012 and from late-August to late- September 2013-2014, with up to eleven 26-h flights per deployment.

Braun, Scott A.↗

NASA NTRS2009

Sensitivity of a Cloud-Resolving Model to Bulk and Explicit Bin Microphysical Schemes: Cloud Microphysics and Storm Dynamics Interactions - Part 2

Part I of this paper compares two simulations, one using a bulk and the other a detailed bin microphysical scheme, of a long-lasting, continental mesoscale convective system with leading convection and trailing stratiform region. Diagnostic studies and sensitivity tests are carried out in Part II to explain the simulated contrasts in the spatial and temporal variations by the two microphysical schemes and to understand the interactions between cloud microphysics and storm dynamics. It is found that the fixed raindrop size distribution in the bulk scheme artificially enhances rain evaporation rate and produces a stronger near surface cool pool compared with the bin simulation. In the bulk simulation, cool pool circulation dominates the near-surface environmental wind shear in contrast to the near-balance between cool pool and wind shear in the bin simulation. This is the main reason for the contrasting quasi-steady states simulated in Part I. Sensitivity tests also show that large amounts of fast-falling hail produced in the original bulk scheme not only result in a narrow trailing stratiform region but also act to further exacerbate the strong cool pool simulated in the bulk parameterization. An empirical formula for a correction factor, r(q(sub r)) = 0.11q(sub r)(exp -1.27) + 0.98, is developed to correct the overestimation of rain evaporation in the bulk model, where r is the ratio of the rain evaporation rate between the bulk and bin simulations and q(sub r)(g per kilogram) is the rain mixing ratio. This formula offers a practical fix for the simple bulk scheme in rain evaporation parameterization.

Li, Xiaowen↗

NASA NTRS2013

Airborne Radar Observations of Severe Hailstorms: Implications for Future Spaceborne Radar

A new dual-frequency (Ku and Ka band) nadir-pointing Doppler radar on the high-altitude NASA ER-2 aircraft, called the High-Altitude Imaging Wind and Rain Airborne Profiler (HIWRAP), has collected data over severe thunderstorms in Oklahoma and Kansas during the Midlatitude Continental Convective Clouds Experiment (MC3E). The overarching motivation for this study is to understand the behavior of the dualwavelength airborne radar measurements in a global variety of thunderstorms and how these may relate to future spaceborne-radar measurements. HIWRAP is operated at frequencies that are similar to those of the precipitation radar on the Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission (Ku band) and the upcoming Global Precipitation Measurement mission satellite's dual-frequency (Ku and Ka bands) precipitation radar. The aircraft measurements of strong hailstorms have been combined with ground-based polarimetric measurements to obtain a better understanding of the response of the Ku- and Ka-band radar to the vertical distribution of the hydrometeors, including hail. Data from two flight lines on 24 May 2011 are presented. Doppler velocities were approx. 39m/s2at 10.7-km altitude from the first flight line early on 24 May, and the lower value of approx. 25m/s on a second flight line later in the day. Vertical motions estimated using a fall speed estimate for large graupel and hail suggested that the first storm had an updraft that possibly exceeded 60m/s for the more intense part of the storm. This large updraft speed along with reports of 5-cm hail at the surface, reflectivities reaching 70 dBZ at S band in the storm cores, and hail signals from polarimetric data provide a highly challenging situation for spaceborne-radar measurements in intense convective systems. The Ku- and Ka-band reflectivities rarely exceed approx. 47 and approx. 37 dBZ, respectively, in these storms.

HIWRAP↗

NASA NTRS2021

Influence of the Saharan Air Layer on Hurricane Nadine (2012). Part I: Observations from the Hurricane and Severe Storm Sentinel (HS3) Investigation and Modeling Results

This study uses a model with aerosol–cloud–radiation coupling to examine the impact of Saharan dust and other aerosols on Hurricane Nadine (2012). To study aerosol direct (radiation) and indirect (cloud microphysics) effects from individual, as well as all aerosol species, eight different NU-WRF Model simulations were conducted. In several simulations, aerosols led to storm strengthening, followed by weakening relative to the control simulation. This variability of the aerosol impact may be related to whether aerosols are ingested into clouds within the outer rainbands or the eyewall. Upper-tropospheric aerosol concentrations indicate vertical transport of all aerosol types in the outer bands but only vertical transport of sea salt in the inner core. The results suggest that aerosols, particularly sea salt, may have contributed to a stronger initial intensification but that aerosol ingestion into the outer bands at later times may have weakened the storm in the longer term. In most aerosol experiments, aerosols led to a reduction in cloud and precipitation hydrometeors, the exception being the dust-only case that produced periods of enhanced hydrometeor growth. The Saharan air layer (SAL) also impacted Nadine by causing a region of strong easterlies impinging on the eastern side of the storm. At the leading edge of these easterlies, cool and dry air near the top of the SAL was being ingested into the outer-band convection. This midlevel low-equivalent-potential-temperature air gradually lowered toward the surface and eventually contributed to significant cold-pool activity in the eastern rainband and in the northeast quadrant of the storm. Such enhanced downdraft activity could have led to weakening of the storm, but it is not presently possible to quantify this impact.

Jainn J. Shi↗

DOE OSTI2023

Evaluating Mesoscale Convective Systems Over the US in Conventional and Multiscale Modeling Framework Configurations of E3SMv1

Organized mesoscale convective systems (MCSs) contribute a significant amount of precipitation in the Central and Eastern US during spring and summer, which impacts the availability of freshwater and flooding events. However, current global Earth system models cannot capture MCSs well and misrepresent the statistics of precipitation in the region. In this study, we investigate the representation of MCSs in three configurations of the Energy Exascale Earth System Model (E3SMv1) by tracking individual storms based on outgoing longwave radiation using a new application of TempestExtremes. Our results indicate that conventional parameterizations of convection, implemented in both low (LR; ~150 km) and high (HR; ~25 km) resolution configurations, fail to capture almost all MCS-like events, in-part because they underestimate high-level cloud ice associated with deep convection. On the other hand, the multiscale modeling framework (MMF; cloud-resolving models embedded in each grid-column of ~150 km resolution E3SMv1) configuration represents MCSs and their annual cycle better. Nevertheless, relative to observations, the E3SMv1-MMF spatial distribution of MCSs and associated precipitation is shifted eastward, and the diurnal timing is lagged. A comparison between the large-scale environment in E3SMv1-MMF and ERA5 reanalysis suggests that the biases during the summer in E3SMv1-MMF are associated with biases in low-level humidity and meridional moisture transport within the low-level jet. The fact that conventional parameterizations of convection, even with high-resolution, cannot capture MCSs over the US suggests that methods with explicit representation of kilometer-scale convective organization, such as the MMF, may be necessary for improving the simulation of these convective systems.

54 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES↗

DOE OSTI2020

Urbanization-induced land and aerosol impacts on sea-breeze circulation and convective precipitation

Abstract. Changes in land cover and aerosols resulting from urbanization may impact convective clouds and precipitation. Here we investigate how Houston urbanization can modify sea-breeze-induced convective cloud and precipitation through the urban land effect and anthropogenic aerosol effect. The simulations are carried out with the Chemistry version of the Weather Research and Forecasting model (WRF-Chem), which is coupled with spectral-bin microphysics (SBM) and the multilayer urban model with a building energy model (BEM-BEP). We find that Houston urbanization (the joint effect of both urban land and anthropogenic aerosols) notably enhances storm intensity (by ∼ 75 % in maximum vertical velocity) and precipitation intensity (up to 45 %), with the anthropogenic aerosol effect more significant than the urban land effect. Urban land effect modifies convective evolution: speed up the transition from the warm cloud to mixed-phase cloud, thus initiating surface rain earlier but slowing down the convective cell dissipation, all of which result from urban heating-induced stronger sea-breeze circulation. The anthropogenic aerosol effect becomes evident after the cloud evolves into the mixed-phase cloud, accelerating the development of storm from the mixed-phase cloud to deep cloud by ∼ 40 min. Through aerosol–cloud interaction (ACI), aerosols boost convective intensity and precipitation mainly by activating numerous ultrafine particles at the mixed-phase and deep cloud stages. This work shows the importance of considering both the urban land and anthropogenic aerosol effects for understanding urbanization effects on convective clouds and precipitation.

54 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES↗

DOE OSTI2021

Enhance Low Level Temperature and Moisture Profiles Through Combining NUCAPS, ABI Observations, and RTMA Analysis

Thermodynamic information from low levels in the atmosphere is crucial for operational weather forecasts and meteorological researchers. The NOAA Unique Combined Atmospheric Processing System (NUCAPS) sounding products have been proven beneficial to fill the data gap between synoptic radiosonde observations (RAOBs). However, compared with the upper troposphere, the accuracy of NUCAPS soundings in the low levels still needs improvement. In this study, a deep neural network (DNN) is applied to fuse multiple data sources to enhance the NUCAPS temperature and moisture profiles in the lower atmosphere. The network is developed by combining satellite observations, including NUCAPS sounding retrievals and high resolution geostationary satellite observations from the Advanced Baseline Imager, and surface analysis from the Real-Time Mesoscale Analysis (RTMA) as inputs, while collocated soundings from ECMWF re-analysis version 5 are used as the benchmark for the training. The performance of the model is evaluated by using the independent testing data set, data from a different year, as well as collocated RAOBs, showing improvement to the temperature and moisture profiles by reducing the root-mean-squared-error (RMSE) by more than 30% in the lower atmosphere (from 700 hPa to surface) in both clear sky and partially cloudy conditions. A convective event from June 18, 2017 is presented to illustrate the application of the enhanced low level soundings on high impact weather events. The enhanced soundings from fused data capture the large surface-based convective available potential energy structures in the preconvection environment, which is very useful for severe storm nowcasting and forecasting applications.

54 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES↗

NASA NTRS1985

Diagnostics of severe convection and subsynoptic scale ageostrophic circulations

Diagnostics of severe convection and subsynoptic scale ageostrophic circulations are reported. Mesoscale circulations through forcing of ageostrophic motion by adiabatic, diabatic and frictional processes were studied. The development and application of a hybrid isentropic sigma coordinate numerical model was examined. The numerical model simulates mesoscale ageostrophic circulations associated with propagating jet streaks and severe convection. A complete list of publications and these completed through support of the NASA severe storms research project is included.

Source record↗

NASA NTRS1991

The flow of plasma in the solar terrestrial environment

The overall goal of our NASA Theory Program is to study the coupling, time delays, and feedback mechanisms between the various regions of the solar-terrestrial system in a self-consistent, quantitative, manner. To accomplish this goal, it will eventually be necessary to have time-dependent macroscopic models of the different regions of the solar-terrestrial system and we are continually working toward this goal. However, our immediate emphasis is on the near-earth plasma environment, including the ionosphere, the plasmasphere, and the polar wind. In this area, we have developed unique global models that allow us to study the coupling between the different regions. These results are highlighted. Another important aspect of our NASA Theory Program concerns the effect that localized structure has on the macroscopic flow in the ionosphere, plasmasphere, thermosphere and polar wind. The localized structure can be created by structured magnetospheric inputs (i.e., structured plasma convection, particle precipitation or Birkeland current patterns) or time variations in these inputs due to storms and substorms. Also, some of the plasma flows that we predict with our macroscopic models may be unstable. Another one of our goals is to examine the stability of our predicted flows. Because time-dependent three-dimensional numerical models of the solar-terrestrial environment generally require extensive computer resources, they are usually based on relatively simple mathematical formulations (i.e., simple MHD or hydrodynamic formulations). Therefore, another long-range goal of our NASA Theory Program is to study the conditions under which various mathematical formulations can be applied to specific solar-terrestrial regions. This may involve a detailed comparison of kinetic, semikinetic, and hydrodynamic predictions for a given polar wind scenario or it may involve the comparison of a small-scale particle-in-cell (PIC) simulation of a plasma expansion event with a similar macroscopic expansion event. The different mathematical formulations have different strengths and weaknesses and a careful comparison of model predictions for similar geophysical situations will provide insight into when the various models can be used with confidence.

Schunk, Robert W.↗

NASA NTRS1990

The flow of plasma in the solar terrestrial environment

The overall goal of our NASA Theory Program was to study the coupling, time delays, and feedback mechanisms between the various regions of the solar-terrestrial system in a self-consistent, quantitative manner. To accomplish this goal, it will eventually be necessary to have time-dependent macroscopic models of the different regions of the solar-terrestrial system and we are continually working toward this goal. However, with the funding from this NASA program, we concentrated on the near-earth plasma environment, including the ionosphere, the plasmasphere, and the polar wind. In this area, we developed unique global models that allowed us to study the coupling between the different regions. These results are highlighted in the next section. Another important aspect of our NASA Theory Program concerned the effect that localized 'structure' had on the macroscopic flow in the ionosphere, plasmasphere, thermosphere, and polar wind. The localized structure can be created by structured magnetospheric inputs (i.e., structured plasma convection, particle precipitation or Birkland current patterns) or time variations in these input due to storms and substorms. Also, some of the plasma flows that we predicted with our macroscopic models could be unstable, and another one of our goals was to examine the stability of our predicted flows. Because time-dependent, three-dimensional numerical models of the solar-terrestrial environment generally require extensive computer resources, they are usually based on relatively simple mathematical formulations (i.e., simple MHD or hydrodynamic formulations). Therefore, another goal of our NASA Theory Program was to study the conditions under which various mathematical formulations can be applied to specific solar-terrestrial regions. This could involve a detailed comparison of kinetic, semi-kinetic, and hydrodynamic predictions for a given polar wind scenario or it could involve the comparison of a small-scale particle-in-cell (PIC) simulation of a plasma expansion event with a similar macroscopic expansion event. The different mathematical formulations have different strengths and weaknesses and a careful comparison of model predictions for similar geophysical situations provides insight into when the various models can be used with confidence.

Schunk, Robert W.↗

NASA NTRS1992

The flow of plasma in the solar terrestrial environment

The overall goal of our NASA Theory Program is to study the coupling, time delays, and feedback mechanisms between the various regions of the solar-terrestrial system in a self-consistent, quantitative manner. To accomplish this goal, it will eventually be necessary to have time-dependent macroscopic models of the different regions of the solar-terrestrial system and we are continually working toward this goal. However, our immediate emphasis is on the near-earth plasma environment, including the ionosphere, the plasmasphere, and the polar wind. In this area, we have developed unique global models that allow us to study the coupling between the different regions. Another important aspect of our NASA Theory Program concerns the effect that localized structure has on the macroscopic flow in the ionosphere, plasmasphere, thermosphere, and polar wind. The localized structure can be created by structured magnetospheric inputs (i.e., structured plasma convection, particle precipitation or Birkeland current patterns) or time variations in these inputs due to storms and substorms. Also, some of the plasma flows that we predict with our macroscopic models may be unstable, and another one of our goals is to examine the stability of our predicted flows. Because time-dependent, three-dimensional numerical models of the solar-terrestrial environment generally require extensive computer resources, they are usually based on relatively simple mathematical formulations (i.e., simple MHD or hydrodynamic formulation). Therefore, another long-range goal of our NASA Theory Program is to study the conditions under which various mathematical formulations can be applied to specific solar-terrestrial regions. This may involve a detailed comparison of kinetic, semikinetic, and hydrodynamic predictions for a given polar wind scenario or it may involve the comparison of a small-scale particle-in-cell (PIC) simulation of a plasma expansion event with a similar macroscopic expansion event. The different mathematical formulations have different strengths and weaknesses and a careful comparison of model predictions for similar geophysical situations will provide insight into when the various models can be used with confidence.

Schunk, R. W.↗

NASA NTRS2007

OMI Tropospheric NO2 from Lightning in Observed Convective Events

Lightning is responsible for an estimated 10-20% of NO(x) emissions in the troposphere. In this study, we present evidence of lightning-generated NO2 (LNO2) using data from the Ozone Monitoring Instrument (OMI), which has observed tropospheric NO2 since its launch in 2004. Although LNO2 has been also reported in previous satellite studies from the Global Ozone Monitoring Experiment (GOME) and SCIAMACHY, OMI is better suited for such measurements by virtue of its higher resolution and daily global coverage. The LNO2 signal is clearly seen in OMI data on two days over and downwind of convective systems in the US Midwest in 2006. We also present an analysis of OMI data over northern Australia during the SCOUT-O3/ACTIVE field campaigns in November and December 2005. Both single- and multi-day averages are presented to examine possible LNO2 signals from individual diurnally recurrent convective events. In these events we compare the OMI signals with aircraft observations from the storm anvils.

Pickering, Kenneth↗

NASA NTRS2016

Observations of Stratiform Lightning Flashes and Their Microphysical and Kinematic Environments

During the Midlatitude Continental Convective Clouds Experiment (MC3E), combined observations of clouds and precipitation were made from airborne and ground-based in situ and remote sensing platforms. These observations were coordinated for multiple mesoscale convective systems (MCSs) that passed over the MC3E domain in northern Oklahoma. Notably, during a storm on 20 May 2011 in situ and remote sensing airborne observations were made near the times and locations of stratiform positive cloud-to-ground (+CG) lightning flashes. These +CGs resulted from extremely large stratiform lightning flashes that were hundreds of km in length and lasted several seconds. This dataset provides an unprecedented look at kinematic and microphysical environments in the vicinity of large, powerful, and long-lived stratiform lightning flashes. We will use this dataset to understand the influence of low liquid water contents (LWCs) in the electrical charging of MCS stratiform regions.

Lightning↗

NASA NTRS2017

Observations of Stratiform Lightning Flashes and Their Microphysical and Kinematic Environments

Lightning↗

NASA NTRS2020

Space-Based Precipitation Measurements in Tropical Cyclones: Past, Present, and Future

Passive and active remote sensing of precipitation from space has led to significant advances in the understanding and prediction of tropical cyclones around the globe. This presentation will highlight the role of past NASA space-based measurements of precipitation by the Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission (TRMM, 1998-2015), ongoing measurements by the Global Precipitation Measurement (GPM) mission (2014-current), and future measurements from the Time-Resolved Observations of Precipitation structure and storm Intensity with a Constellation of Smallsats (TROPICS, nominal launch date in 2020) as well as a potential new mission on Aerosols, Clouds, Convection, and Precipitation (ACCP) from the 2017 NASA Earth Science Decadal Survey. TRMM, which flew the first precipitation radar in space, provided the first systematic descriptions of the radial and azimuthal variations of rainfall in tropical cyclones around the globe and their relationship to storm motion and vertical wind shear. GPM is the lynchpin of a global constellation of precipitation satellites that provides high spatial (0.1°) and temporal (30 min) resolution real-time estimates of precipitation globally, making them essential to applications related to tropical cyclone prediction, disaster response, flood and landslide monitoring, and vector-borne disease monitoring. TROPICS will be a constellation of 6 Cubesat satellites with microwave imaging and sounding channels that will provide information on temperature and humidity in the storm environment, as well as estimates of precipitation and tropical cyclone intensity. ACCP is yet to be fully defined, but is envisioned to potentially carry multi-frequency radar with possible Doppler capability.

Braun, Scott↗

NASA NTRS1984

A kinetic energy analysis of the meso beta-scale severe storm environment

Analyses are performed of the meso beta-scale (20-200 km wavelengths and several hours to one-day periods) severe storm kinetic energy balance on the fifth day of the AVE SESAME campaign of May 1979. A 24-hr interval covering the antecedent, active and post-convective outbreak activity over Oklahoma are considered. Use is made of the kinetic energy budget equation (KEBE) for a finite volume in an isobaric coordinate system. Rawindsonde data with 75 km resolution were treated. The KEBE model covered changes in kinetic energy due to the cross contour flows, horizontal and vertical components of flux divergence, and volumic mass changes on synoptic and subsynoptic scales. The greatest variability was concentrated above 400 mb height and over the most intense storm activity. Energy was generated at the highest rates in divergence and decreased the most in convection. The meso beta-scale lacked sufficient resolution for analyzing mesoscale activity.

Fuelberg, H. E.↗

NASA NTRS1982

Stereoscopic observations of hurricanes and tornadic thunderstorms from geosynchronous satellites

Results are presented which show the application of GOES stereoscopy to the investigation of hurricanes and tornadic thunderstorms. Stereo cloud top height contour maps were constructed to observe the structural evolution of two hurricanes, Frederic on September 12, 1979 and Allen on August 8, 1980, and a tornadic thunderstorm complex over Oklahoma on May 2-3, 1979. Stereo height contours of Hurricane Allen reveal a very intense and symmetric storm with a circular shaped central dense overcast with an average height of 16.5 km. Contours of Hurricane Frederic reveal a preferred region for convection with an explosive exhaust tower attaining a maximum height of 17.8 km. Also presented is a technique for estimating tropical cyclone intensity using GOES stereo height and IR temperature information. Results indicate vertical motions ranging from 4.4 m/s for a moderate storm to 7.7 m/s for an intense storm.

Mack, R.↗