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This paper presents the analysis, and development of a dual-frequncy (Ku and Ka-band) and dual-polarization at each frequency Airborne Rain Radar Antenna (ARRA) system.
It is well-documented (Hitschfeld and Bordan 1954, Meneghini 1978, Haddad et al 1993) that there are significant ambiguites inherent in the determination of a particular vertical rain intensity profile from a given time profile of radar echo powers measured by a downward-looking (spaceborne or airborne) radar at a single attenuating frequency.
The pulse compression system for an airborne rain mapping rada is described. This system uses time domain weighting of the transmit pulse and is able to achive a pulse compression sidelobe level of -55 dB. This is significantly lower than any values previously reported in the open literature.
Current passive-microwave rain-retrieval methods are largely based on databases built off-line using cloud models.
Experimental, potentially real-time systems to detect floods and landslides related to heavy rain events are described. A key basis for these applications is high time resolution satellite rainfall analyses. Rainfall is the primary cause for devastating floods across the world. However, in many countries, satellite-based precipitation estimation may be the best source of rainfall data due to insufficient ground networks and absence of data sharing along many trans-boundary river basins. Remotely sensed precipitation from the NASA's TRMM Multi-satellite Precipitation Analysis (TMPA) operational system (near real-time precipitation at a spatial-temporal resolution of 3 hours and 0.25deg x 0.25deg) is used to monitor extreme precipitation events. Then these data are ingested into a macro-scale hydrological model which is parameterized using spatially distributed elevation, soil and land cover datasets available globally from satellite remote sensing. Preliminary flood results appear reasonable in terms of location and frequency of events, with implementation on a quasi-global basis underway. With the availability of satellite rainfall analyses at fine time resolution, it has also become possible to assess landslide risk on a near-global basis. Early results show that landslide occurrence is closely associated with the spatial patterns and temporal distribution of TRMM rainfall characteristics. Particularly, the number of landslides triggered by rainfall is related to rainfall climatology, antecedent rainfall accumulation, and intensity-duration of rainstorms. For the purpose of prediction, an empirical TMPA-based rainfall intensity-duration threshold is developed and shown to have skill in determining potential areas of landslides. These experimental findings, in combination with landslide surface susceptibility information based on satellite-based land surface information, form a starting point towards a potential operational landslide monitoring/warning system around the globe.
Variability in the global distribution of precipitation is recognized as a key element in assessing the impact of climate change for life on earth. The response of precipitation to climate forcings is, however, poorly understood because of discrepancies in the magnitude and sign of climatic trends in satellite-based rainfall estimates. Quantifying and ultimately removing these biases is critical for studying the response of the hydrologic cycle to climate change. In addition, estimates of random errors owing to variability in algorithm assumptions on local spatial and temporal scales are critical for establishing how strongly their products should be weighted in data assimilation or model validation applications and for assigning a level of confidence to climate trends diagnosed from the data. This paper explores the potential for refining assumed drop size distributions (DSDs) in global radar rainfall algorithms by establishing a link between satellite observables and information gleaned from regional validation experiments where polarimetric radar, Doppler radar, and disdrometer measurements can be used to infer raindrop size distributions. By virtue of the limited information available in the satellite retrieval framework, the current method deviates from approaches adopted in the ground-based radar community that attempt to relate microphysical processes and resultant DSDs to local meteorological conditions. Instead, the technique exploits the fact that different microphysical pathways for rainfall production are likely to lead to differences in both the DSD of the resulting raindrops and the three-dimensional structure of associated radar reflectivity profiles. Objective rain-type classification based on the complete three-dimensional structure of observed reflectivity profiles is found to partially mitigate random and systematic errors in DSDs implied by differential reflectivity measurements. In particular, it is shown that vertical and horizontal reflectivity structure obtained from spaceborne radar can be used to reproduce significant differences in Z(sub dr) between the easterly and westerly climate regimes observed in the Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission Large-scale Biosphere-Atmosphere (TRMM-LBA) field experiment as well as the even larger differences between Amazonian rainfall and that observed in eastern Colorado. As such, the technique offers a potential methodology for placing locally observed DSD information into a global framework.
Atmospheric moisture cycling is an important aspect of the Earth's climate system, yet the processes determining atmospheric humidity are poorly understood. For example, direct evaporation of rain contributes significantly to the heat and moisture budgets of clouds, but few observations of these processes are available. Similarly, the relative contributions to atmospheric moisture over land from local evaporation and humidity from oceanic sources are uncertain. Lighter isotopes of water vapour preferentially evaporate whereas heavier isotopes preferentially condense and the isotopic composition of ocean water is known. Here we use this information combined with global measurements of the isotopic composition of tropospheric water vapour from the Tropospheric Emission Spectrometer (TES) aboard the Aura spacecraft, to investigate aspects of the atmospheric hydrological cycle that are not well constrained by observations of precipitation or atmospheric vapour content. Our measurements of the isotopic composition of water vapour near tropical clouds suggest that rainfall evaporation contributes significantly to lower troposphere humidity, with typically 20% and up to 50% of rainfall evaporating near convective clouds. Over the tropical continents the isotopic signature of tropospheric water vapour differs significantly from that of precipitation, suggesting that convection of vapour from both oceanic sources and evapotranspiration are the dominant moisture sources. Our measurements allow an assessment of the intensity of the present hydrological cycle and will help identify any future changes as they occur.
We use space-based observations of NO2 columns from the Global Ozone Monitoring Experiment (GOME) to map the spatial and seasonal variations of NOx emissions over Africa during 2000. The GOME observations show not only enhanced tropospheric NO2 columns from biomass burning during the dry season but also comparable enhancements from soil emissions during the rainy season over the Sahel. These soil emissions occur in strong pulses lasting 1-3 weeks following the onset of rain, and affect 3 million sq km of semiarid sub-Saharan savanna. Surface observations of NO2 from the International Global Atmospheric Chemistry (IGAC)/Deposition of Biochemically Important Trace Species (DEBITS)/Africa (IDAF) network over West Africa provide further evidence for a strong role for microbial soil sources. By combining inverse modeling of GOME NO2 columns with space-based observations of fires, we estimate that soils contribute 3.3+/-1.8 TgN/year, similar to the biomass burning source (3.8+/-2.1 TgN/year), and thus account for 40% of surface NO(x) emissions over Africa. Extrapolating to all the tropics, we estimate a 7.3 TgN/year biogenic soil source, which is a factor of 2 larger compared to model-based inventories but agrees with observation-based inventories. These large soil NO(x) emissions are likely to significantly contribute to the ozone enhancement originating from tropical Africa.
The scope of this paper is the development and recent field deployments of the High-Altitude Imaging Wind and Rain Airborne Profiler (HIWRAP), which was funded under the NASA Instrument Incubator Program (IIP) [1]. HIWRAP is a dual-frequency (Ka- and Ku-band), dual-beam (300 and 400 incidence angles), conical scanning, Doppler radar system designed for operation on the NASA high-altitude (65,000 ft) Global Hawk Unmanned Aerial System (UAS). It utilizes solid state transmitters along with a novel pulse compression scheme that results in a system with compact size, light weight, less power consumption, and low cost compared to radars currently in use for precipitation and Doppler wind measurements. By combining measurements at Ku- and Ka-band, HIWRAP is able to image winds through measuring volume backscattering from clouds and precipitation. In addition, HIWRAP is also capable of measuring surface winds in an approach similar to SeaWinds on QuikScat. To this end, HIWRAP hardware and software development has been completed. It was installed on the NASA WB57 for instrument test flights in March, 2010 and then deployed on the NASA Global Hawk for supporting the Genesis and Rapid Intensification Processes (GRIP) field campaign in August-September, 2010. This paper describes the scientific motivations of the development of HIWRAP as well as system hardware, aircraft integration and flight missions. Preliminary data from GRIP science flights is also presented.
Didymopanax pittieri is a common shade-intolerant tree colonizing treefall gaps in the elfin forests on windswept ridgecrests in the lower montane rain forests of the Cordillera de Tilarain, Costa Rica. All D. pittieri taller than > 0.5 m in a 5.2-ha elfin forested portion of a gridded study watershed in the Monteverde Cloud Forest Preserve were located, mapped, and measured. This local population of D. pittieri is spatially inhomogeneous, in that density increases with increasing wind exposure; D. pittieri are more abundant near ridge crests than lower on windward slopes. The important and ubiquitous phenomenon of spatial inhomogeneity in population density is addressed and corrected for in spatial analyses by the application of the inhomogeneous version of Ripley's K. The spatial patterns of four size classes of D. pittieri (<5 cm dbh, 5-10 cm dbh, 10-20 cm dbh, and> 20 cm dbh) were investigated. Within the large-scale trend in density driven by wind exposure, D. pittieri saplings are clumped at the scale of treefall gaps and at the scale of patches of aggregated gaps. D. pittieri 5-10 cm dbh are randomly distributed, apparently due to competitive thinning of sapling clumps during the early stages of gap-phase regeneration. D. pittieri larger than 10 cm dbh are overdispersed at a scale larger than that of patches of gaps. Natural disturbance can influence the distribution of shade intolerant tree populations at several different spatial scales, and can have discordant effects at different life history stages.
A compact, dual-frequency, dual-polarization, wide-angle-scanning antenna system has been developed as part of an airborne instrument for measuring rainfall. This system is an upgraded version of a prior single-frequency airborne rain radar antenna system and was designed to satisfy stringent requirements. One particularly stringent combination of requirements is to generate two dual-polarization (horizontal and vertical polarizations) beams at both frequencies (13.405 and 35.605 GHz) in such a way that the beams radiated from the antenna point in the same direction, have 3-dB angular widths that match within 25 percent, and have low sidelobe levels over a wide scan angle at each polarization-and-frequency combination. In addition, the system is required to exhibit low voltage standing-wave ratios at both frequencies. The system (see figure) includes a flat elliptical scanning reflector and a stationary offset paraboloidal reflector illuminated by a common-aperture feed system that comprises a corrugated horn with four input ports one port for each of the four frequency-and-polarization combinations. The feed horn is designed to simultaneously (1) under-illuminate the reflectors 35.605 GHz and (2) illuminate the reflectors with a 15-dB edge taper at 13.405 GHz. The scanning mirror is rotated in azimuth to scan the antenna beam over an angular range of 20 in the cross-track direction for wide swath coverage, and in elevation to compensate for the motion of the aircraft. The design of common-aperture feed horn makes it possible to obtain the required absolute gain and low side-lobe levels in wide-angle beam scanning. The combination of the common-aperture feed horn with the small (0.3) focal-length-to-diameter ratio of the paraboloidal reflector makes it possible for the overall system to be compact enough that it can be mounted on a DC-8 airplane.
For centuries, inhabitants of the Indian subcontinent have know that heavy dust events brought on by strong winds occur frequently in the pre-monsoon season, before the onset of heavy rain. Yet scientists have never seriously considered the possibility that natural dust can affect monsoon rainfall. Up to now, most studies of the impacts of aerosols on Indian monsoon rainfall have focused on anthropogenic aerosols in the context of climate change. However, a few recent studies have show that aerosols from antropogenic and natural sources over the Indian subcontinent may affect the transition from break to active monsoon phases on short timescales of days to weeks. Writing in Nature Geoscience, Vinoj and colleagues describe how they have shown that desert dust aerosols over the Arabian Sea and West Asia can strenghten the summer monsoon over the Indial subcontinent in a matter of days.
Drop size distribution (DSD) measurements using ground-based disdrometers (point measurements) have often been used to derive equations to relate radar observations to the integral rainfall parameters (Atlas et al. 1999, Bringi et al., 2003, Kozu et al., 2006, Tokay and Short, 1996, Ajayi and Owolabi, 1987, Battan, 1973). Disdrometers such as JWD, MRR and several others have a major limitation in measuring drops with equi-volume diameters (D(sub eq)) larger than 5 mm because they often rely on the velocity-diameter relationship which plateaus beyond this diameter range (Atlas et al., 1973, Gunn & Kinzer, 1949). Other disdrometers such as Parsivel also lack accuracy beyond this diameter range. The 2D video disdrometer (2DVD: Schönhuber et al., 2008) on the other hand gives drop-shape contours and velocities for each individual drop/hydrometeor falling through its sensor area; this provides a unique opportunity to study the role of very-large drops on radar measurements in particular those with polarimetric radar capability where DSDs with a significant component of very large drops may require special consideration given that the differential reflectivity and other polarimetric radar parameters including attenuation-correction methods will be sensitive to the concentrations of these large drops. A recent study on the occurrence of large drops by Gatlin et al. (2014) has compiled a large and diverse set of measurements made with the 2D video disdrometers from many locations around the globe. Some of the largest drops found in this study were 9 mm D(sub eq) and larger, and in this paper, we report on three such events, with maximum D(sub eq's) of 9.0, 9.1 and 9.7 mm, which occurred in Colorado, Northern Alabama, and Oklahoma, respectively. Detailed examination of the 2DVD data - in terms of shapes and fall velocities - has confirmed that these are fully-melted hydrometeors, although for the last case in Oklahoma, a bigger and non-fully-melted hydrometeor was also observed. All three events were also captured by polarimetric radars, namely the S-band CHILL radar operated by Colorado State University (Brunkow et al., 2000), the C-band ARMOR radar (Petersen et al., 2007) operated by University of Alabama in Huntsville, and NEXRADKVNX, operated by the US National Weather Service, respectively. For the last event, several other radar observations were also made, including two X-band radars operated by the US Dept. of Energy. Analyses of 2DVD data in conjunction with the corresponding radar observations are presented, along with some discussion on sampling issues related to the measurements of such large rain drops. The latter is addressed using maximum diameter D(sub max) measurements from 1-minute DSDs using two collocated 2DVDs for 37 events in Huntsville.
Asteroid 4 Vesta is differentiated into a crust, mantle, and core, as demonstrated by studies of the eucrite and diogenite meteorites and by data from NASA's Dawn spacecraft. Most models for the differentiation and thermal evolution of Vesta assume that the metal phase completely melts within 20 degrees of the eutectic temperature, well before the onset of silicate melting. In such a model, core formation initially happens by Darcy flow, but this is an inefficient process for liquid metal and solid silicate. However, the likely chemical composition of Vesta, similar to H chondrites with perhaps some CM or CV chondrite, has 13-16 weight percent S. For such compositions, metal-sulfide melting will not be complete until a temperature of at least 1350 degrees Centigrade. The silicate solidus for Vesta's composition is between 1100 and 1150 degrees Centigrade, and thus metal and silicate melting must have substantially overlapped in time on Vesta. In this chemically and physically more likely view of Vesta's evolution, metal sulfide drops will sink by Stokes flow through the partially molten silicate magma ocean in a process that can be envisioned as "iron rain". Measurements of eucrites show that moderately siderophile elements such as Ni, Mo, and W reached chemical equilibrium between the metal and silicate phases, which is an important test for any Vesta differentiation model. The equilibration time is a function of the initial metal grain size, which we take to be 25-45 microns based on recent measurements of H6 chondrites. For these sizes and reasonable silicate magma viscosities, equilibration occurs after a fall distance of just a few meters through the magma ocean. Although metal drops may grow in size by merger with other drops, which increases their settling velocities and decreases the total core formation time, the short equilibration distance ensures that the moderately siderophile elements will reach chemical equilibrium between metal and silicate before metal drop merger becomes important. In this model, there must be at least 30 percent melting of the silicate phase when metal melting is complete, corresponding to a crust thickness of at least 30 kilometers on Vesta, consistent with Dawn gravity observations. Greater degrees of silicate melting and a correspondingly thicker crust are possible if Vesta accreted sufficiently rapidly.
Geochemical observations of the eucrite and diogenite meteorites, together with observations made by NASA's Dawn spacecraft while orbiting asteroid 4 Vesta, suggest that Vesta resembles H chondrites in bulk chemical composition, possible with about 25 percent of a CM-chondrite like composition added in. For this model, the core is 15 percent by mass (or 8 percent by volume) of the asteroid, with a composition of 73.7 percent by weight Fe, 16.0 percent by weight S, and 10.3 percent by weight Ni. The abundances of moderately siderophile elements (Ni, Co, Mo, W, and P) in eucrites require that essentially all of the metallic phase in Vesta segregated to form a core prior to eucrite solidification. The combination of the melting phase relationships for the silicate and metal phases, together with the moderately siderophile element concentrations together require that complete melting of the metal phase occurred (temperature is greater than1350 degrees Centigrade), along with substantial (greater than 40 percent) melting of the silicate material. Thus, core formation on Vesta occurs as iron rain sinking through a silicate magma ocean.
With the use of 213,456 one-minute measured data of droplet-size distribution (DSD) of rain collected during several National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA)-sponsored field campaigns, the relationships between rainfall rate R, mass-weighted diameter D(m) and normalized intercept parameter N(w) of the gamma DSD are studied. It is found, based on the simulations of the gamma DSD model, that R, D(m) and N(w) are closely interrelated, and that the ratio of R to N(w) is solely a function of D(m), independent of the shape factor μ of the gamma distribution. Furthermore, the model-produced ratio agrees well with those from the DSD data. When a power-law equation is applied to fit the model data, we have: R=aN(w)D(sup b, sub m) , where a=1.588×10(exp −4) , b=4.706 . Analysis of two-parameter relationships such as R–D(m), N(w)–R and N(w)–D(m) reveals that R and D(m) are moderately correlated while N(w) and D(m) are negatively correlated. N(w) and R, however, are uncorrelated. The gamma DSD model also reveals that variation of R–D(m) relation is caused primarily by N(w). For the application of the Ku- and Ka-band dual-frequency radar for the retrieval of the DSD bulk parameters as well as the specific radar attenuations, the study is carried out to relate the dual-frequency radar reflectivity factors to the DSD and attenuation parameters.
Mineral dust plays an important role in the atmospheric radiation budget as well as in the ocean carbon cycle through fertilization and by ballasting of settling organic matter. However, observational records of open-ocean dust deposition are sparse. Here, we present the spatial and temporal evolution of Saharan dust deposition over 2 years from marine sediment traps across the North Atlantic, directly below the core of the Saharan dust plume, with highest dust fluxes observed in summer. We combined the observed deposition fluxes with model simulations and satellite observations and argue that dust deposition in the Atlantic is predominantly controlled by summer rains. The dominant depositional pathway changes from wet deposition in summer to dry deposition in winter. Wet deposition has previously been suggested to increase the release of dust-derived nutrients and their bioavailability, which may be a key contributor to surface-ocean productivity in remote and oligotrophic parts of the oceans.
In this paper we analyze the first five years of the first global land and ocean remote-sensing record of rainfall. We distill the information into a few objective indices, the first principal components of the rain anomaly, and extend them back in time to show how the global remote-sensing record implies that El Nino is indeed the major driver of the global interannual variability of rainfall.