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NASA NTRS1994

Scaling of impact damage in fiber composites

Impact damage in fiber composite structures remains of much concern, and is often the limiting factor in establishing allowable strain levels. The complexity of impact damage formation usually dictates that experiments are required, but scaling of results from small laboratory scale specimens to large structures introduces additional uncertainty into the analysis. This presentation gives the results of an analytical and experimental investigation intended to develop procedures for prediction of damage formation and subsequent strength loss, with particular emphasis on scaling of results with respect to structure size. The experimental investigation involved both drop-weight and airgun impact on carbon/epoxy plates and cylinders. Five sizes of plates ranging from 50 by 50 by 1.072 mm to 250 by 250 by 5.36 mm, and two sizes of cylinders with diameters of 96.5 and 319 mm, were employed in the experimental program. Impact tests were carried out over a range of impact conditions, and specimens were inspected for damage by C-scan and deplying. Analysis procedures were developed for both quasistatic and dynamic impacts for both the plates and cylinders. As has been reported previously, comparison of predicted structural response and measured surface strains was quite good over the entire range of sizes employed in the program. The damage formation and strength loss after impact showed a number of interesting features that are significant with respect to scaling of size. The extent of delamination was observed to increase with specimen size more than would be expected if stresses controlled the delamination extent. This was explained on the basis that delamination is controlled by energy release rates, and thus incorporates the usual dependence on the absolute size characteristic of fracture mechanics. Additionally, the experiments indicated that delamination initiated at matrix cracks and is dependent on the absolute size of the ply group thicknesses. Both the initiation and propagation of delamination are seen to be controlled by fracture mechanics parameters, and thus show specific dependence on size that must be accounted for in extrapolating results from laboratory scale tests to full size structures.

Swanson, Stephen R.↗

NASA NTRS1996

Geologic signatures of atmospheric effects on impact cratering on Venus

Highlights of the research include geologic signatures of impact energy and atmospheric response to crater formation. Laboratory experiments were performed at the NASA Ames Vertical Gun Range (AVGR) to assess the interaction between disrupted impactor and atmosphere during entry, and to assess the energy coupling between impacts and the surrounding atmosphere. The Schlieren imaging at the AVGR was used in combination with Magellan imaging and theoretical studies to study the evolution of the impactor following impact. The Schlieren imaging documented the downrange blast front created by vaporization during oblique impacts. Laboratory experiments allowed assessing the effect of impact angle on coupling efficiency with an atmosphere. And the impact angle's effect on surface blasts and run-out flows allowed the distinction of crater clusters created by simultaneous impacts from those created by isolated regions of older age.

Source record↗

NASA NTRS1997

A Unified Theory of Impact Crises and Mass Extinctions: Quantitative Tests

Several quantitative tests of a general hypothesis linking impacts of large asteroids and comets with mass extinctions of life are possible based on astronomical data, impact dynamics, and geological information. The waiting of large-body impacts on the Earth derive from the flux of Earth-crossing asteroids and comets, and the estimated size of impacts capable of causing large-scale environmental disasters, predict that impacts of objects greater than or equal to 5 km in diameter (greater than or equal to 10 (exp 7) Mt TNT equivalent) could be sufficient to explain the record of approximately 25 extinction pulses in the last 540 Myr, with the 5 recorded major mass extinctions related to impacts of the largest objects of greater than or equal to 10 km in diameter (greater than or equal to 10(exp 8) Mt Events). Smaller impacts (approximately 10 (exp 6) Mt), with significant regional environmental effects, could be responsible for the lesser boundaries in the geologic record.

Rampino, Michael R.↗

NASA NTRS1994

Compositional Variation in Apollo 16 Impact-Melt Breccias and Inferences for the Geology and Bombardment History of the Central Highlands of the Moon

High-precision data for the concentrations of a number of lithophile and siderophile elements were obtained on multiple subsamples from 109 impact-melt rocks and breccias (mostly crystalline) from the Apollo 16 site. Compositions of nearly all Apollo 16 melt rocks fall on one of two trends of increasing Sm concentration with increasing Sc concentration. The Eastern trend (lower Sm/Sc, Mg/Fe, and Sm/Yb ratios) consists of compositional groups 3 and 4 of previous classification schemes. These melt rocks are feldspathic, poor in incompatible and siderophile elements, and appear to have provenance in the Descartes formation to the east of the site. The Western trend (higher Sm/Sc. Mg/Fe, and Sm/ Yb ratios) consists of compositional groups 1 and 2. These relatively mafic, KREEP-bearing breccias are a major component (approx.35%) of the Cayley plains west of the site and are unusual, compared to otherwise similar melt breccias from other sites, in having high concentrations of Fe-Ni metal ( 1-2 %). The metal is the carrier of the low-Ir/Au (approx. 0.3 x chondritic) siderophile-element signature that is characteristic of the Apollo 16 site. Four compositionally distinct groups (1M, 1F, 2DB, and 2NR) of Western-trend melt breccias occur that are each represented by at least six samples. Compositional group 1 or previous classification schemes (the 'poikilitic' or 'LKFM' melt breccias) can be subdivided into two groups. Group 1M (represented by six samples, including 60315) is characterized by lower Al2O3 concentrations, higher MgO and alkali concentrations, and higher Mg/Fe and Cr/Sc ratios than group 1F (represented by fifteen samples, including 65015). Group 1M also has siderophile-element concentrations averaging about twice those of group lF and Ir/Au and Ir/Ni ratios that are even lower than those of other Western-trend melt rocks (Ir/Au = 0.24 +/- 0.03. CI-normalized). At the mafic extreme of group 2 ('VHA' melt breccias), the melt lithology occurring as clasts in feldspathic fragmental breccias from North Ray crater (group 2NR) is compositionally distinct from the melt lithology ofdimict breccias from the Cayley plains (group 2DB) in having higher concentrations of Sc, Cr, and heavy rare earth elements and lower concentrations of siderophile elements. The distinct siderophile-element signature (high absolute abundances, low Ir/Au ratio) suggest that the four groups ofmafic melt breccia are all somehow related. Ratios ofsome lithophile elements also suggest that they are more closely related to each other than then, are to melt breccias from other Apoll sites. However, none of the breccia compositions can be related to any of the others by any simple process of igneous fractionation or mixing involving common lunar materials. Thus, the origin of the four groups of mafic melt breccia is enigmatic. If they were produced in only one or two impacts, then a mechanism exists for generating regimes of impact-melt breccia in a single impact that are substantially different from each other in composition. For various reasons, including the problem of delivering large volumes of four different types of melt to the Apollo 16 site, it is unlikely that any of these breccias were produced in basin-forming impacts. If they were produced in as many as four crater-forming impacts, then the unusual siderophile-element signature is difficult to explain. Possible explanations are (1) the four groups of melt breccia all contain metal from a single, earlier impact, (2) they were each formed by related metal-rich meteoroids, or (3) some common postimpact process has resulted in metal of similar composition in each of four melt pools. Within a compositional group, most intrasample and intersample variation in lithophile element concentrations is caused by differences among samples in the proportion of a component of normative anorthosite or noritic anorthosite. In most cases, this compositional variation probably reflects variation in clast abundance. For group 2DB (and probably 2NR), differences in abundance of a component of ferroan anorthosite (estimated Al2O3 approx. 32%) accounts for the compositional variation. For groups 1M and 1F, the anorthositic component is more mafic (estimated Al203 approx. 26%). Some group-2 samples may be related by a troctolitic component of varying abundance.

Korotev, Randy L.↗

NASA NTRS1997

Striations, Polish, and Related Features from Clasts in Impact-Ejecta Deposits and the "Tillite Problem"

Proximal ejecta deposits related to three large terrestrial impacts, the 14.8-Ma Ries impact structure in Germany (the Bunte Breccia), the 65-Ma Chicxulub impact structure in the Yucatan (the Albion and Pook's Hill Diamictites in Belize) and the mid-Tertiary Azuara impact structure in Spain (the Pelarda Fm.) occur in the form of widespread debris-flow deposits most likely originating from ballistic processes. These impact-related diamictites typically are poorly sorted, containing grain sizes from clay to large boulders and blocks, and commonly display evidence of mass flow, including preferred orientation of long axes of clasts, class imbrication, flow noses, plugs and pods of coarse debris, and internal shear planes. Clasts of various lithologies show faceting, various degrees of rounding, striations (including nailhead striae), crescentic chattermarks, mirror-like polish, percussion marks, pitting, and penetration features. Considering the impact history of the Earth, it is surprising that so few ballistic ejecta, deposits have been discovered, unless the preservation potential is extremely low, or such materials exist but have been overlooked or misidentified as other types of geologic deposits . Debris-flow diamictites of various kinds have been reported in the geologic record, but these are commonly attributed to glaciation based on the coarse and poorly sorted nature of the deposits and, in many cases, on the presence of clasts showing features considered diagnostic of glacial action, including striations of various kinds, polish, and pitting. These diamictites are the primary evidence for ancient ice ages. We present evidence of the surface features on clasts from known proximal ejecta debris-flow deposits and compare these features with those reported in diamictites. interpreted as ancient glacial deposits (tillites). Our purpose is to document the types of features seen on clasts in diamictites of ejecta origin in order to help in the interpretation of the origin of ancient diamictites. The recognition of characteristic features in clast populations in ancient diamictites may allow identification and discrimination of debris-flow deposits of various origins (e.g., impact glacial, tectonic) and may shed light on some climatic paradoxes, such as inferred Proterozoic glaciations at low paleolatitudes.

Rampino, M. R.↗

NASA NTRS2000

The Impact Threat and Public Perception

Recent popular movies have raised public consciousness of the very real possibility of a comet or asteroid collision with the Earth, and a news report last year implying that asteroid 1997 XF11 had a distinct chance of hitting the Earth in the year 2028 further caught the public's eye. The report of possible impact was withdrawn the very next day, and the public perceived either that astronomers had made mistaken calculations, or that the pre-discovery observations found that day had been responsible for the revised prediction. But in fact, the original report of the possibility of impact in 2028 was simply a premature assessment. The XF11 affair has demonstrated the need for clarity and precision in public communications dealing with the possibility of Earth impact, as well as the importance of peer review before results are released to the press. This year, another potentially hazardous asteroid, 1999 AN10, has made the news, and this time there is indeed a remote chance of collision. Although impact is not possible during the asteroid's primary close approach in 2027, the uncertainties allow for a remarkably close passage, and embedded within the encounter's uncertainty region are many narrow "keyholes" which could bring the asteroid back for a close approach in a later year. Three keyholes have been identified which could perturb the asteroid onto trajectories that collide with the Earth in the years 2044, 2046, or 2039. At the time of this writing, the estimated impact probability for 1999 AN10 is on the order of 1 in 500,000, larger than for any other known object, but still significantly less than the probability of an undiscovered asteroid of equivalent size striking the Earth before 2044. Additional astrometric measurements of 1999 AN10 will likely drive its impact probability down to near-zero, but this may not happen for years, testing the public's reaction to a lingering remote possibility of impact. A side effect of the increasing discovery rate for Near Earth objects will be a growing number of cases like 1999 ANIO.

Chodas, Paul W.↗

NASA NTRS2000

Effects of Heat Treatment on the Ballistic Impact Properties of Inconel 718 for Jet Engine Fan Containment Applications

The effects of heat treating Inconel 718 on the ballistic impact response and failure mechanisms were studied. Two different annealing conditions and an aged condition were considered. Large differences in the static properties were found between the annealed and the aged material, with the annealed condition having lower strength and hardness and greater elongation than the aged. Correspondingly large differences were found in the velocity required to penetrate material in the two conditions in impact tests involving 12.5 mm diameter, 25.4 mm long cylindrical Ti-6-4 projectiles impacting flat plates at velocities in the range of 150 to 300 m/sec. The annealed material was able to absorb over 25 percent more energy than the aged. This is contrary to results observed for ballistic impact response for higher velocity impacts typically encountered in military applications where it has been shown that there exists a correlation between target hardness and ballistic impact strength. Metallographic examination of impacted plates showed strong indication of failure due to adiabatic shear. In both materials localized bands of large shear deformation were apparent, and microhardness measurements indicated an increase in hardness in these bands compared to the surrounding material. These bands were more localized in the aged material than in the annealed material. In addition the annealed material underwent significantly greater overall deformation before failure. The results indicate that high elongation and better strain hardening capabilities reduce the tendency for shear to localize and result in an unstable adiabatic shear failure. This supports empirical containment design methods that relate containment thickness to the static toughness.

Pereira, J. Michael↗

NASA NTRS2000

The Survival of Meteorite Organic Compounds with Increasing Impact Pressure

The majority of carbonaceous meteorites studied today are thought to originate in the asteroid belt. Impacts among asteroidal objects generate heat and pressure that may have altered or destroyed pre-existing organic matter in both targets and projectiles to a greater or lesser degree depending upon impact velocities. Very little is known about the shock related chemical evolution of organic matter relevant to this stage of the cosmic history of biogenic elements and compounds. The present work continues our study of the effects of shock impacts on selected classes of organic compounds utilizing laboratory shock facilities. Our approach was to subject mixtures of organic compounds, embedded in a matrix of the Murchison meteorite, to a simulated hypervelocity impact. The molecular compositions of products were then analyzed to determine the degree of survival of the original compounds. Insofar as results associated with velocities < 8 km/sec may be relevant to impacts on planetary surfaces (e.g., oblique impacts, impacts on small outer planet satellites) or grain-grain collisions in the interstellar medium, then our experiments will be applicable to these environments as well.

Cooper, George↗

NASA NTRS1999

Effects of Heat Treatment on the Ballistic Impact Properties of Inconel 718 for Jet Engine Fan Containment Applications

The effects of heat treating Inconel 718 on the ballistic impact response and failure mechanisms were studied. Two different annealing conditions and an aged condition were considered. Large differences in the static properties were found between the annealed and the aged material, with the annealed condition having lower strength and hardness and greater elongation than the aged. High strain rate tests show similar results. Correspondingly large differences were found in the velocity required to penetrate material in the two conditions in impact tests involving 12.5 mm diameter, 25.4 mm long cylindrical Ti-6-4 projectiles impacting flat plates at velocities in the range of 150 to 300 m/sec. The annealed material was able to absorb over 25 percent more energy than the aged. This is contrary to results observed for ballistic impact response for higher velocity impacts typically encountered in military applications where it has been shown that there exists a correlation between target hardness and ballistic impact strength. Metallographic examination of impacted plates showed strong indication of failure due to adiabatic shear. In both materials localized bands of large shear deformation were apparent, and microhardness measurements indicated an increase in hardness in these bands compared to the surrounding material. These bands were more localized in the aged material than in the annealed material. In addition the annealed material underwent significantly greater overall deformation before failure. The results indicate that lower elongation and reduced strain hardening behavior lead to a transition from shear to adiabatic shear failure, while high elongation and better strain hardening capabilities reduce the tendency for shear to localize and result in an unstable adiabatic shear failure. This supports empirical containment design methods that relate containment thickness to the static toughness.

Pereira, J. Michael↗

NASA NTRS2001

Effects of Heat Treatment on the Ballistic Impact Properties of Inconel 718 for Jet Engine Fan Containment Applications

The effects of heat treating Inconel 718 on the ballistic impact response and failure mechanisms were studied. Two different annealing conditions and an aged condition were considered. Large differences in the static properties were found between the annealed and the aged material, with the annealed condition having lower strength and hardness and greater elongation than the aged. High strain rate tests show similar results. Correspondingly large differences were found in the velocity required to penetrate material in the two conditions in impact tests involving 12.5 mm diameter, 25.4 mm long cylindrical Ti-6-4 projectiles impacting flat plates at velocities in the range of 150 to 300 m/sec. The annealed material was able to absorb over 25 percent more energy than the aged. This is contrary to results observed for ballistic impact response for higher velocity impacts typically encountered in military applications where it has been shown that there exists a correlation between target hardness and ballistic impact strength. Metallographic examination of impacted plates showed strong indication of failure due to adiabatic shear. In both materials localized bands of large shear deformation were apparent, and microhardness measurements indicated an increase in hardness in these bands compared to the surrounding material. These bands were more localized in the aged material than in the annealed material. In addition the annealed material underwent significantly greater overall deformation before failure. The results indicate that lower elongation and reduced strain hardening behavior lead to a transition from shear to adiabatic shear failure, while high elongation and better strain hardening capabilities reduce the tendency for shear to localize and result in an unstable adiabatic shear failure. This supports empirical containment design methods that relate containment thickness to the static toughness.

Pereira, J. Michael↗

NASA NTRS1995

Nonlinear Propagating Features in the Stratosphere of Jupiter Generated by the Impact of SL-9

Among the more intriguing features observed by HST after the impacts of the fragments of Shoemaker-Levy 9 were rings, encircling several of the impact sites, that expanded radially at constant velocities of order 450-500 m/s. One credible suggestion has been that the rings are stratospheric manifestations of linear gravity waves seated in the troposphere (Ingersoll and Kanamori, 1995). In this scenario the waves are made visible by a condensible material of unknown composition. Based on simulations of the comet impact by Zahnle and Mac Low (1995), we suggest an alternative hypothesis, namely that the rings are nonlinear stratospheric gravity waves which break and entrain impact debris material in the breaking wave front. The computations produce just such a feature, with the nonlinear breaking wave front in the stratosphere propagating radially away from the impact site with the correct speed. The computed ring of material is located in an altitude region where the static stability profile has a local maximum and therefore forms a waveguide. Because entrained impact debris forms the ring feature in the model, a condensate of some unknown composition is not required in order to view the wave front. However, there is one severe problem with the computed nonlinear wave: in contrast to a linear wave, it slows down. The computed feature stops within 1000 seconds, while the observed feature lasted at least 10,000 seconds. Since the nonlinear breaking wave front is a natural product of our impact simulations, we are now investigating the conditions that will enable the breaking wave front to propagate further, in accord with the observations. The results of these computations will be presented.

Young, R. E.↗

NASA NTRS1999

Analysis of Midlatitude Auroral Emissions Observed During the Impact of Comet Shoemaker-Levy 9 with Jupiter

During the impact of Comet Shoemaker-Levy 9 fragment K on Jupiter observers detected aurora-like emissions near the impact region as well as in the other hemisphere at approximately magnetic conjugate positions equatorward of aurorae latitudes. A number of generation mechanisms were suggested, but investigations of their significance have been hampered by a lack of knowledge about the jovian internal magnetic field, the exact timing, and the geometry of the impact and emission sites. We use the VIP 4 model of the internal magnetic field, high-time-resolution calculations of the fragment K trajectory, and images from the Hubble Space Telescope Wide Field Planetary Camera 2 with advanced processing to reanalyze the relationship between these emissions. The impact location is enclosed to the north and south by two regions of enhanced far-ultraviolet emissions reaching a maximum distance of 18,000 km south of the impact site roughly along the line of the incoming fragment's trajectory. The southern region can be further divided into two subregions, which partly overlap with magnetic projections of two brighter emission regions observed in the northern hemisphere close to the line of footprints of Amalthea. The area of the southern region approximates the area of these projections. No enhanced emissions are found conjugate to the impact site and the northward emission region. The magnetic projections suggest that the Gossamer ring scattered particles coming from the region southward of the impact site and prevented precipitation from the northward region into the northern hemisphere. Particle acceleration by upward accelerating shocks seems feasible to explain the geometry of the southern and northern hemispheric emission regions if we assume that a part of the plume bounced twice and provided enough energy at its second bounce to also generate shock waves.

Bauske, Rainer↗

NASA NTRS2002

Shergottite Impact Melt Glasses Contain Soil from Martian Uplands

Martian meteorite (shergottite) impact melt glasses that contain high concentrations of martian atmospheric noble gases and show significant variations in Sr-87/Sr-86 isotopic ratios are likely to contain Martian surface fines mixed with coarser regolith materials. The mixed soil constituents were molten due to shock at the time of meteoroid impact near the Martian surface and the molten glass got incorporated into the voids and cracks in some shergottite meteorites. Earlier, Rao et al. found large enrichments of sulfur (sulfate) during an electron-microprobe study of several impact melt glass veins and pods in EET79001,LithC thin sections. As sulfur is very abundant in Martian soil, these S excesses were attributed to the mixing of a soil component containing aqueously altered secondary minerals with the LithC precursor materials prior to impact melt generation. Recently, we studied additional impact melt glasses in two basaltic shergottites, Zagami and Shergotty using procedures similar to those described by Rao et al. Significant S enrichments in Zagami and Shergotty impact melt glass veins similar to the EET79001, LithC glasses were found. In addition, we noticed the depletion of the mafic component accompanied by the enrichment of felsic component in these impact melt glass veins relative to the bulk host rock in the shergottites. To explain these observations, we present a model based on comminution of basaltic rocks due to meteroid bombardment on martian regolith and mechanical fractionation leading to enrichment of felsics and depletion of mafics in the fine grained dust which is locally mobilized as a result of saltation and deflation due to the pervasive aeolian activity on Mars.

Rao, M. N.↗

NASA NTRS2002

Initial Results on the Extraterrestrial Component of New Sediment Cores Containing Deposits of the Eltanin Impact Event

Background: The impact of the Eltanin asteroid into the Bellingshausen Sea (2.15 Ma) is the only known impact in a deep-ocean (approx. 5 km) basin. In 1995, Polarstern expedition ANT XII/4 made the first geological survey of the suspected impact region. Three sediment cores sampled around the San Martin seamounts (approx. 57.5 S, 91 W) contained well-preserved impact deposits. Sediments of Eocene age and younger were ripped up and redeposited by the impact. The depositional sequence produced by the impact has three units: a chaotic assemblage of sediment fragments up to 50 cm, followed by laminated sands deposited as a turbulent flow, and finally silts and clays that accumulated from dispersed sediments in the water column. The meteoritic impact ejecta, which is composed of shock-melted asteroidal materials and unmelted meteorites, settled through the water column and concentrated near the top of the laminated sands.

Kyte, Frank T.↗

NASA NTRS2002

Shergottite Impact Melt Glasses Contain Soil from Martian Uplands

Martian meteorite (shergottite) impact melt glasses that contain high concentrations of martian atmospheric noble gases and show significant variations in Sr-87/Sr-86 isotopic ratios are likely to contain Martian surface fines mixed with coarser regolith materials. The mixed soil constituents were molten due to shock at the time of meteoroid impact near the Martian surface and the molten glass got incorporated into the voids and cracks in some shergottite meteorites. Earlier, Rao et al. found large enrichments of sulfur (sulfate) during an electron-microprobe study of several impact melt glass veins and pods in EET79001,LithC thin sections. As sulfur is very abundant in Martian soil, these S excesses were attributed to the mixing of a soil component containing aqueously altered secondary minerals with the LithC precursor materials prior to impact melt generation. Recently, we studied additional impact melt glasses in two basaltic shergottites, Zagami and Shergotty using procedures similar to those described. Significant S enrichments in Zagami and Shergotty impact melt glass veins similar to the EET79001, LithC glasses were found. In addition, we noticed the depletion of the mafic component accompanied by the enrichment of felsic component in these impact melt glass veins relative to the bulk host rock in the shergottites. To explain these observations, we present a model based on comminution of basaltic rocks due to meteoroid bombardment on martian regolith and mechanical fractionation leading to enrichment of felsics and depletion of mafics in the fine grained dust which is locally mobilized as a result of saltation and deflation due to the pervasive aeolian activity on Mars.

Rao, M. N.↗

NASA NTRS2003

An Impact Ejecta Behavior Model for Small, Irregular Bodies

In recent years, spacecraft observations of asteroids 951 Gaspra, 243 Ida, 253 Mathilde, and 433 Eros have shown the overriding dominance of impact processes with regard to the structure and surface morphology of these small, irregular bodies. In particular, impact ejecta play an important role in regolith formation, ranging from small particles to large blocks, as well as surface feature modification and obscuration. To investigate these processes, a numerical model has been developed based upon the impact ejecta scaling laws provided by Housen, Schmidt, and Holsapple, and modified to more properly simulate the late-stage ejection velocities and ejecta plume shape changes (ejection angle variations) shown in impact cratering experiments. A target strength parameter has also been added to allow the simulation of strength-dominated cratering events in addition to the more familiar gravity-dominated cratering events. The result is a dynamical simulation which models -- via tracer particles -- the ejecta plume behavior, ejecta blanket placement, and impact crater area resulting from a specified impact on an irregularly shaped target body, which is modeled in 3-dimensional polygon fashion. This target body can be placed in a simple rotation state about one of its principal axes, with the impact site and projectile/target parameters selected by the user. The gravitational force from the irregular target body (on each tracer particle) is determined using the polygonized surface (polyhedron) gravity technique developed by Werner.

Richardson, J. E.↗

NASA NTRS2004

Foam on Tile Impact Modeling for the STS-107 Investigation

Following the breakup of the Space Shuttle Columbia during reentry a NASA/Contractor investigation team was formed to examine the probable damage inflicted on Orbiter Thermal Protection System elements by impact of External Tank insulating foam projectiles. The authors formed a working subgroup within the larger team to apply the Smooth Particle Hydrodynamics code SPHC to the damage estimation problem. Numerical models of the Orbiter's tiles and of the Tank's foam were constructed and used as inputs into the code. Material properties needed to properly model the tiles and foam were obtained from other working subgroups who performed tests on these items for this purpose. Two- and three-dimensional models of the tiles were constructed, including the glass outer layer, the main body of LI-900 insulation, the densified lower layer of LI-900, the Nomex felt mounting layer, and the Aluminum 2024 vehicle skin. A model for the BX-250 foam including porous compression, elastic rebound, and surface erosion was developed. Code results for the tile damage and foam behavior were extensively validated through comparison with Southwest Research Institute foam-on-tile impact experiments carried out in 1999. These tests involved small projectiles striking individual tiles and small tile arrays. Following code and model validation we simulated impacts of larger foam projectiles on the examples of tile systems used on the Orbiter. Results for impacts on the main landing gear door are presented in this paper, including effects of impacts at several angles, and of rapidly rotating projectiles. General results suggest that foam impacts on tiles at about 500 mph could cause appreciable damage if the impact angle is greater than about 20 degrees. Some variations of the foam properties, such as increased brittleness or increased density could increase damage in some cases. Rotation up to 17 rps failed to increase the damage for the two cases considered. This does not rule out other cases in which the rotational energy might lead to an increase in tile damage, but suggests that in most cases rotation will not be an important factor.

Stellingwerf, R. F.↗

NASA NTRS1997

Energy, volatile production, and climatic effects of the Chicxulub Cretaceous/Tertiary impact

A comprehensive analysis of volatiles in the Chicxulub impact strongly supports the hypothesis that impact-generated sulfate aerosols caused over a decade of global cooling, acid rain, and disruption of ocean circulation, which contributed to the mass extinction at the Cretaceous/Tertiary (K/T) boundary. The crater size, meteoritic content of the K/T boundary clay, and impact models indicate that the Chicxulub crater was formed by a short period comet or an asteroid impact that released 0.7-3.4 x 10(31) ergs of energy. Impact models and experiments combined with estimates of volatiles in the projectile and target rocks predict that over 200 gigatons (Gt) each of SO2 and water vapor, and over 500 Gt of CO2, were globally distributed in the stratosphere by the impact. Additional volatiles may have been produced on a global or regional scale that formed sulfate aerosols rapidly in cooler parts of the vapor plume, causing an early, intense pulse of sulfuric acid rain. Estimates of the conversion rate of stratospheric SO2 and water vapor to sulfate aerosol, based on volcanic production of sulfate aerosols, coupled with calculations of diffusion, coagulation, and sedimentation, demonstrate that the 200 Gt stratospheric SO2 and water vapor reservoir would produce sulfate aerosols for 12 years. These sulfate aerosols caused a second pulse of acid rain that was global. Radiative transfer modeling of the aerosol clouds demonstrates (1) that if the initial rapid pulse of sulfate aerosols was global, photosynthesis may have been shut down for 6 months and (2) that for the second prolonged aerosol cloud, solar transmission dropped 80% by the end of first year and remained 50% below normal for 9 years. As a result, global average surface temperatures probably dropped between 5 degrees and 31 degrees K, suggesting that global near-freezing conditions may have been reached. Impact-generated CO2 caused less than 1 degree K greenhouse warming and therefore was insignificant compare to the sulfate cooling. The magnitude of sulfate cooling depends largely upon the rate of ocean mixing as surface waters cool, sink, and are replaced by upwelling of deep ocean water. This upwelling apparently drastically altered ocean stratification and circulation, which may explain the global collapse of the delta 13C gradient between surface and deep ocean waters at the K/T boundary.

NASA Center JPL↗