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At least 613 records · Page 34
All sourcesNASA NTRSDOE OSTI
DOE OSTI2020

Method for coating ultrafine particles, system for coating ultrafine particles

The invention provides a method for dispersing particles within a reaction field, the method comprising confining the particles to the reaction field using a standing wave. The invention also provides a system for coating particles, the system comprising a reaction zone; a means for producing fluidized particles within the reaction zone; a fluid to produce a standing wave within the reaction zone; and a means for introducing coating moieties to the reaction zone. The invention also provides a method for coating particles, the method comprising fluidizing the particles, subjecting the particles to a standing wave; and contacting the subjected particles with a coating moiety.

25 ENERGY STORAGE↗
DOE OSTI2021

Reduction of Ultrafine Hematite for a Spouting Bed Chemical Looping Process - Presentation

Chemical looping combustion research has been a topic of great interest since the mid-1990s, although the concept can be traced much further back. It is a combustion technology for fuel utilization that uses a two-reactor system to produce a carbon free effluent stream from the air reactor and a carbon dioxide rich stream from the fuel reactor with oxygen shuttled between the reactors with an oxygen carrier. Chemical looping combustion has been studied extensively because of this inherent separation of the carbon dioxide combustion product from the atmospheric nitrogen over that past 25 years with hundreds of research papers and tens of books. The oxygen carrier is, in general, a solid such as naturally occurring hematite or an engineered carrier like a copper and iron oxide supported on alumina. System technical and economic research activities conducted at the National Energy Technology Laboratory have shown that the costs associated with the carrier, initial and replacement, are a significant factor in the economic viability of the technology. To overcome this economic challenge, the work reported on in this paper investigates the use of a waste iron oxide as the chemical looping oxygen carrier. This waste material is quite unique as it has a particle size of 0.7 um. Given the particle size, the reactions are quite fast. However, the development of a contactor reactor to mix the fuel with the carrier is a fluidization challenge as the material is a Geldart group C material and highly cohesive. Normally, Geldart group C materials are fluidized with either a vibrating bed. This technique is acceptable for low temperature pharmaceuticals production but does not lend itself to much larger reactors used for power production or operation at temperatures in the order of 1100 to 1200 C. Therefore, a hydrodynamic solution was needed to break up the cohesive structures to replace the vibration. In this instance, it was hypothesized that a spouting bed of large Geldart group B or Geldart group D particles could provide the necessary energy to break up the cohesive structures of the Geldart group C material. This paper presents the reduction performance for this novel carrier material in a laboratory spouting bed reactor.

Breault, Ronald↗
DOE OSTI2020

Successes and Challenges of the Integrated Waste Treatment Unit's 50-Day Demonstration Run - 20151

The Integrated Waste Treatment Unit (IWTU) has been tasked with using steam reforming technology to treat 3.4 million liters (900,000 gallons) of radioactive sodium-bearing waste (SBW) at the Idaho National Laboratory (INL). The project has been hampered by a number of processing issues associated with process equipment during simulant testing, with the two main issues involving the fluidizing gas distribution system in the main reactor vessel, the denitration mineralization reformer (DMR), and high differential pressures in the main filter vessel, the process gas filter (PGF). Following the replacement of the fluidizing gas distribution system in the DMR, a successful 30-day demonstration run was performed that revealed unacceptable bridging in the filter bundles of the PGF. The bundles were replaced with new ones, and a 50-day demonstration run was performed. The main purpose of this run was to operate the IWTU over a range of operating conditions. Overall, the run was a success; however, there were multiple challenges that arose from the run. (authors)

12 MANAGEMENT OF RADIOACTIVE AND NON-RADIOACTIVE W↗
DOE OSTI2018

50-kWth methane/air chemical looping combustion tests with commercially prepared CuO-Fe 2 O 3 -alumina oxygen carrier with two different techniques

CuO-Fe 2 O 3 /alumina oxygen carriers were manufactured using two different techniques (i.e., spray drying and wet granulation). The spray drying method produced porous, spherical particles in the range of 100–200 µm. The wet granulation, or tumbling method, produced particles in the range of 200–600 µm. Both batches of material showed good gas conversion and particle durability during tests in NETL’s 50-kWth chemical looping circulating fluidized bed combustor unit at 700–900 °C. No agglomeration was observed, even though the oxygen carrier had a high CuO concentration (30%). The particle losses with 200–600 µm batch were significantly lower than that with the 100–200 µm batch. The oxygen carrier materials in the 200–600 µm range were circulated for approximately 3.1 days in the target temperature range (700–850 °C) and a total of approximately 40 h of chemical looping combustion testing was conducted during that time. The average fuel reactor temperatures ranged from 760 to 815 °C for the chemical looping combustion test periods, and the average air reactor temperature ranged from 840 to 915 °C. The fuel conversion from natural gas to CO 2 ranged from 50 to 80%. Approximately 1.6 h of continuous operation was achieved with no gas preheat and no natural gas augmented heating. During this test period, the average fuel reactor temperature ranged from 780 to 825 °C, the air reactor temperature ranged from 930 to 960 °C, and the natural gas to CO 2 conversion ranged from 50 to 65%. Finally, analysis of the oxygen carrier after the test indicated that there were no significant changes in the particle size or the surface morphology.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗
DOE OSTI2016

Evidence of Technetium and Iodine from a Sodalite-Bearing Ceramic Waste Form

Current plans for nuclear waste vitrification at the Hanford Tank Waste Treatment and Immobilization Plant (WTP) lack the capacity to treat all of the low activity waste (LAW) that is not encapsulated in the vitrified product. Several technologies are being considered to treat the excess LAW. One such technology is Fluidized Bed Steam Reforming (FBSR). The FBSR process results in a granular product composed of feldspathoid mineral phases that immobilize the major components in the LAW as well as other contaminants of concern (COCs), with Tc and I expected to be present in sodalite cages formed during the process. In order to meet compressive strength requirements at the Hanford Integrated Disposal Facility (IDF), the granular product may be encapsulated in a monolith. To demonstrate the ability of the technology to serve the mission of managing excess LAW, Single Pass Flow-Through (SPFT) tests have been performed on non-radioactive granular materials and granular materials encapsulated in a geopolymer binder produced at the engineering- and bench-scale as well as a granular product produced at the bench scale with actual Hanford tank waste. SPFT tests were conducted at 40 °C for durations up to 2 months with a flow-through solution buffered at pH 9. The forward reaction rate of the non-radioactive mineral product dissolution based on Si release for the granular product was measured to be (6.2 ± 2.1) × 10-4 g/m2d for the engineering-scale product and (13 ± 4.9) × 10-4 g/m2d for the bench-scale product. The resulting non-radioactive monoliths showed forward reaction rates based on Si release of (3.4 ± 1.1) × 10-4 g/m2d for the engineering-scale material and (4.2 ± 1.5) × 10-4 g/m2d for the bench-scale material demonstrating that encapsulation of the FBSR granular product in a monolith does not significantly alter the performance of the material. Finally, an FBSR granular product created at the bench scale using actual Hanford LAW gave similar release values and also demonstrated that Re and Tc show similar release behavior with a dilute-condition release rate of (1.1 ± 0.5) × 10-4 g/m2d for Tc and (1.6 ± 0.6) × 10-4 g/m2d for Re. We believe that this is the first demonstration to show that Re and I have similar release behavior and that similar behavior of Re and Tc also occurs. These results indicate that the FBSR mineral product may be a suitable supplementary immobilization technique at the Hanford site and they also suggest that both Tc and Re occupy similar sites in the sodalite cage structure.

fluidized bed steam reforming↗
DOE OSTI2020

Investigating biomass composition and size effects on fast pyrolysis using global sensitivity analysis and CFD simulations

It is notoriously difficult to build an accurate universal model for biomass pyrolysis due to its sensitivity to a wide number of critical material attributes such as chemical species and physical sizes. In this work, a biomass pyrolysis kinetics with 32 heterogeneous reactions and 59 species was implemented in an open-source multiphase computational fluid dynamics (CFD) software MFiX and validated against two different experimental pyrolysis data sets that provided detailed data describing chemical component yields. The reaction scheme was then used to build a surrogate model and assess the sensitivity of pyrolysis yields to feedstock compositions. The sensitivity analysis determined that the yield of bio-char showed a strong positive sensitivity to the carbon-rich lignin and tannin pseudo-species in the reaction scheme while the bio-oil and bio-gas were correlated to oxygen-rich lignin pseudo-species. The reaction scheme was then integrated into a coarse-grained discrete element model to simulate fast pyrolysis in a bubbling fluidized bed over a range of feedstock particle sizes. The reactor simulations showed further sensitivity to particle size and hydrodynamics. Notably, particles under 0.5 mm have small heat transfer limitations but left the reactor before completely converting and thus reduced the bio-oil yield. Results from this study can be used to guide future development of highly accurate models for fast pyrolysis reactors with a variety of feedstock properties and operating conditions.

09 BIOMASS FUELS↗
DOE OSTI2021

Multiscale CFD simulation of biomass fast pyrolysis with a machine learning derived intra-particle model and detailed pyrolysis kinetics

Coupling particle and reactor scale models is as essential as reactor fluid dynamics and particle motion for accurate Computational Fluid Dynamic (CFD) simulations of biomass fast pyrolysis reactors due to intraparticle heat transfer and chemical reactions controlling conversion time and product distributions. Direct online coupling of a particle model with a reactor model is computationally expensive, while offline coupling is case-dependent. In this research, solutions from a series of particle pyrolysis simulations were regressed with Artificial Neural Network (ANN). Furthermoer, this machine learning-derived model predicted the same temperature and conversion profiles compared with particle resolved simulation while the isothermal approach overpredicted the temperature by 130 K and underpredicted the conversion time by 30 s. The ANN model was then integrated into CFD simulations of fluidized bed biomass fast pyrolysis with varied feedstocks via coupling PyTorch and MFiX. The averaged error of simulation predicted bio-oil yields with four feedstocks is 6.4%. This multi-scale approach provides an efficient tool for the coupled particle and reactor scale simulations of biomass pyrolysis.

09 BIOMASS FUELS↗
DOE OSTI2020

Bridging particle and reactor scales in the simulation of biomass fast pyrolysis by coupling particle resolved simulation and coarse grained CFD-DEM

Efficient utilization of biomass is challenging due to the complexity of the feedstock at molecular, particle, and reactor scales. Direct coupling of particle scale model and reactor scale simulation is computationally infeasible. In this work, the results from a particle resolved simulation were used to calibrate the heat transfer and reaction kinetics of particles. A hybrid drag model was used to consider the different fluidization properties of sands and biomass particles. The computation cost was reduced using a coarse-grained Discrete Element Method (DEM). The simulated conversion rate, char yield, tar yield, and pyrolysis gas yield compare well with experiment. The residence time and axial distributions of biomass were also analyzed. This novel multi-scale method provides an efficient and accurate tool for the modeling of biomass pyrolysis reactors.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗
DOE OSTI2017

Constrained reduced-order models based on proper orthogonal decomposition

A novel approach is presented to constrain reduced-order models (ROM) based on proper orthogonal decomposition (POD). The Karush–Kuhn–Tucker (KKT) conditions were applied to the traditional reduced-order model to constrain the solution to user-defined bounds. The constrained reduced-order model (C-ROM) was applied and validated against the analytical solution to the first-order wave equation. C-ROM was also applied to the analysis of fluidized beds. Lastly, it was shown that the ROM and C-ROM produced accurate results and that C-ROM was less sensitive to error propagation through time than the ROM.

42 ENGINEERING↗
DOE OSTI2024

A generalized analytical energy balance model for evaluating agglomeration from a binary collision of wet particles

Agglomeration of wet particles, i.e., particles coated with a thin liquid layer, is a common phenomenon in many processes like fluidized bed combustion of low rank fuels. The availability of an agglomeration model that can evaluate the outcome of a binary collision between wet particles differing in solid particle properties, liquid layer thicknesses, and initial collision (impact) speeds is essential for obtaining a comprehensive understanding on the existing processes experiencing wet particle agglomeration or for a successful development of new processes with high chances of wet particle agglomeration. This study presents a generalized agglomeration model on the basis of energy conservation before and after collision when colliding wet particles may differ in solid particle properties, liquid layer thicknesses, and impact speeds. The model was established based on the approximate values of energy losses that may happen during the collision. It incorporates body forces, solid-solid contacting, liquid capillary, and viscous contributions, as well as the liquid bridge volume effect. Predictions of the new model for collision outcomes of identical wet particles were like those from an analytical energy balance model developed recently by the group for identical wet particles. We also validated the new model by experimental data from literature. The results of a collision direction analysis indicated that the direction often has a minimal effect on the collision outcome in many practical scenarios. The results of Monte Carlo uncertainty analyses with the new model revealed that proper estimations of impact speed, under capillary limiting conditions, and thickness of coating layers and asperity heights, under viscous limiting conditions, are critical for the realistic prediction of collision outcomes at impact speeds close to critical impact speed, i.e., the minimum particle speed required for the particles to rebound.

72 PHYSICS OF ELEMENTARY PARTICLES AND FIELDS↗
DOE OSTI2019

Conventional and autothermal pyrolysis of corn stover: Overcoming the processing challenges of high-ash agricultural residues

The high ash content of agricultural residues and other kinds of herbaceous biomass makes it a challenging feedstock for fast pyrolysis to bio-oil. Using corn stover as a representative feedstock, this study investigates fast pyrolysis of high ash, herbaceous biomass in a pilot-scale fluidized bed reactor using both conventional, nitrogen-blown and autothermal, air-blown operation. Initial efforts to pyrolyze corn stover were challenged by bed fouling, which prevented steady reactor operation. Substitution of coarser bed material allowed operation at higher superficial velocities, which promoted attrition and elutriation of recalcitrant biochar particles from the reactor. This resulted in dramatic improvement in stable reactor operation for both conventional and autothermal pyrolysis with bio-oil yields among the highest reported for pyrolysis of corn stover. The oxygen-to-biomass equivalence ratio required for autothermal operation was 6.8%. Autothermal operation also resulted in significant process intensification, increasing corn stover throughput from 7.8 kg hr –1 to 21.9 kg hr –1 for this 8.9 cm diameter reactor. Air-blown, autothermal operation did not significantly reduce bio-oil yield despite the presence of partial oxidation reactions. In conclusion, carbon balances indicate carbon yields of biochar and aqueous, bio-oil light ends decreased by 18.5% and 4.7%, respectively, during autothermal pyrolysis compared to conventional pyrolysis while the more valuable, organic-rich heavy ends of the bio-oil were essentially preserved.

09 BIOMASS FUELS↗
DOE OSTI2023

Scaling CFB risers: Beyond the data using microstructure similarity

Scaling circulating fluidized bed risers has been a point of contention for nearly a century. There have been numerous attempts to define various methodologies. These have all fallen short of providing a robust approach, primarily due to a lack of maintaining microstructure dynamics – a key factor in maintaining interphase heat and mass transfer. Recent work by the author put forward an approach based upon preserving dynamic similarity at different scales by ensuring that the microstructure remained similar by maintaining statistical and chaotic parameters across the scale. That work relied on a dimensionless regime map in which the x-axis was defined by the ratio of the solids flux to the saturation carrying capacity. This latter property was only good within the range of the data, and it became evident that extrapolation beyond the limits of the data could induce unrealistic conditions. Therefore, literature was reviewed to develop a better correlation for the saturation carrying capacity. In doing so, a critical riser diameter concept was developed and applied to the correlations for both Geldart Group A and B materials. The critical diameter for Geldart Group A and B materials is 0.2 m and 0.3 m, respectively. Here the paper then gives three examples on how to use the scaling approach to maintain dynamic similarity across the scales.

02 PETROLEUM↗
DOE OSTI2024

Asynchronous GPU-based DEM solver embedded in commercial CFD software with polyhedral mesh support

A novel graphical processing unit-based discrete element method solver is introduced to improve stability, performance, and provide seamless integration into commercial or open-source computational fluid dynamics software. A key innovation is eliminating a need for network communication between solvers, which was previously required for cross-platform coupling. This is accomplished by a direct coupling method that employs dynamic-linked libraries. Furthermore, the solver optimizes memory usage by streamlining the particle-cell search algorithm by eliminating the cells' searching grid. This ensures the solver is compatible with a wide range of mesh types, providing high geometric flexibility. The approach simplifies the simulation process by directly incorporating computational fluid dynamics mesh information into the discrete element method solver. The performance analysis indicates about sixteen times boost in computational speed compared to benchmark central processing unit-based solvers. Finally, the solver's compatibility with polyhedral meshes, a vital advantage for complex geometries, is tested against a referenced study regarding the simulation of an immersed-tube fluidized bed.

32 ENERGY CONSERVATION, CONSUMPTION, AND UTILIZATI↗
DOE OSTI2018

Chemical vapor deposition of Mo tubes for fuel cladding applications

In this study, chemical vapor deposition (CVD) techniques have been evaluated for fabrication of free-standing 0.25 mm thick molybdenum tubes with the end goal of nuclear fuel cladding applications. In order to produce tubes with the wall thickness and microstructures desirable for this application, long deposition durations on the order of 50 h with slow deposition rates were employed. A standard CVD method, involving molybdenum pentachloride reduction by hydrogen, as well as a fluidized-bed CVD (FBCVD) method was applied towards these objectives. Characterization of the tubes produced in this manner revealed regions of material with fine grain microstructure and wall thickness suitable for fuel cladding applications, but lacking necessary uniformity across the length of the tubes. Finally, a path forward for the production of freestanding molybdenum tubes that possess the desired properties across their entire length has been identified and can be accomplished by future optimization of the deposition system.

(Fluidized-bed) chemical vapor deposition↗
DOE OSTI2015

How should greenhouse gas emissions be taken into account in the decision making of municipal solid waste management procurements? A case study of the South Karelia region, Finland

Highlights: • Environmental criteria for the MSW incineration location procurements are needed. • Focus should be placed on annual energy efficiency and on substitute fuels. • In SRF combustion it is crucial to know the share and the treatment of rejects. • The GWP of transportation is a small part of the total emissions. - Abstract: The ongoing trend in the public sector is to make more sustainable procurements by taking into account the impacts throughout the entire life cycle of the procurement. Despite the trend, the only deciding factor can still be the total costs. This article answers the question of how greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions should be taken into account in municipal solid waste (MSW) management when selecting an incineration plant for source separated mixed MSW. The aim is to guide the decision making of MSW management towards more environmentally friendly procurements. The study was carried out by calculating the global warming potentials (GWPs) and costs of mixed MSW management by using the waste composition from a case area in Finland. Scenarios of landfilling and combustion in three actual waste incineration plants were used to recognise the main processes that affect the results. GWP results show that the combustion of mixed MSW is a better alternative than landfilling the waste. The GHG results from combustion are greatly affected by emissions from the combustion and substituted energy production. The significance of collection and transportation is higher from the costs’ perspective than from the point of view of GHG emissions. The main costs, in addition to collection and transportation costs, result from the energy utilization or landfilling of mixed MSW. When tenders are invited for the incineration location of mixed MSW, the main focus should be: What are the annual electricity and heat recovery efficiencies and which are the substituted fuels in the area? In addition, in the case of a fluidized bed combustor it is crucial to know the combusted share of mixed MSW after preparing solid recovered fuel (SRF) and the treatment of rejects. The environmental criteria for the waste incineration plant procurements should be made in order to obtain clear instructions for the procurement units. The results can also be utilized more widely. The substituted fuels in the area and the effect of the plant location on the utilization of the produced energy can already be identified when planning an appropriate site for the waste incineration plant.

09 BIOMASS FUELS↗
DOE OSTI2017

Status and perspectives of municipal solid waste incineration in China: A comparison with developed regions

Highlights: • Questions about the applicability, technical status, and future of MSW incineration in China are answered. • Comparison involves China, EU, U.S., Japan, South Korea, and Taiwan area. • MSW incineration is not out of date around the world. • The structure of MSW incineration technologies is changing in China. • Perspectives and suggestions are given for the compliance with the emission standard. - Abstract: With the rapid expansion of municipal solid waste (MSW) incineration, the applicability, technical status, and future improvement of MSW incineration attract much attention in China. This paper aims to be a sensible response, with the aid of a comparison between China and some representative developed regions including the EU, the U.S., Japan, South Korea, and Taiwan area. A large number of up-to-date data and information are collected to quantitatively and impartially support the comparison, which covers a wider range of key points including spatial distribution, temporal evolution, technologies, emissions, and perspectives. Analysis results show that MSW incineration is not an outdated choice; however, policy making should prevent the potentially insufficient utilization of MSW incinerators. The structure of MSW incineration technologies is changing in China. The ratio of plants using fluidized bed is decreasing due to various realistic reasons. Decision-makers would select suitable combustion technologies by comprehensive assessments, rather than just by costs. Air pollution control systems are improved with the implementation of China’s new emission standard. However, MSW incineration in China is currently blamed for substandard emissions. The reasons include the particular elemental compositions of Chinese MSW, the lack of operating experience, deficient fund for compliance with the emission standard, and the lack of reliable supervisory measures. Some perspectives and suggestions from both technical and managerial aspects are given for the compliance with the emission standard. This paper can provide strategic enlightenments for MSW management in China and other developing countries.

12 MANAGEMENT OF RADIOACTIVE AND NON-RADIOACTIVE W↗
DOE OSTI2017

Environmental performances of different configurations of a material recovery facility in a life cycle perspective

Highlights: • An attributional LCA assessed the environmental performances of an integrated MRF. • Different configurations of the MRF technological evolution have been analysed. • Reliable data provide a large LCI table for all the configurations and each sub-units. • A biological treatment in-situ improves the potentials of land occupation and global warming. • The inclusion of a small-scale gasifier could improve almost all the environmental potentials. - Abstract: The study evaluated the environmental performances of an integrated material recovery facility (MRF) able to treat 32 kt/y of unsorted mixed waste, made of residuals from household source separation and separate collection. The facility includes a mechanical sorting platform for the production of a solid recovered fuel (SRF) utilized in an external waste-to-energy plant, bio-cells for tunnel composting of organic fraction, and a sanitary landfill for the safe disposal of ultimate waste. All the MRF sub-units have been analysed in depth in order to acquire reliable data for a life cycle assessment study, focused on the environmental performances of different configurations of the facility. The study investigated a “past” configuration, including just mechanical sorting, landfilling and biogas combustion in a gas engine, and the “present” one, which includes also a composting unit. Two possible “future” configurations, having a gasifier inside the MRF battery limits, have been also analysed, assessing the performances of two fluidized bed reactors of different size, able to gasify only the residues generated by the sorting platform or the whole amount of produced SRF, respectively. The analysis evaluated the contributions of each unit in the different configurations and allowed a reliable assessment of the technological evolution of the facility. The results quantified the positive effect of the inclusion of an aerobic treatment of the waste organic fraction. The SRF gasification in situ appears to improve the MRF environmental performances in all the impact categories, with the exclusion of that of global warming.

12 MANAGEMENT OF RADIOACTIVE AND NON-RADIOACTIVE W↗
DOE OSTI2018

Implementation of waste-to-energy options in landfill-dominated countries: Economic evaluation and GHG impact

Highlights: • Replacing landfilling with WtE schemes in landfill-dominated European countries. • WtE schemes provide GHG reduction potential compared with landfilling. • Gasification schemes compare favorably with incineration. • Gasification with engine is the best option for GHG emissions and profitability. • Gate fee is the main factor affecting profitability in WtE schemes. - Abstract: The economic and environmental impact of several waste-to-energy (WtE) schemes to produce electricity from municipal solid waste (MSW) refuse is evaluated and compared with landfill disposal. Both incineration and gasification alternatives are considered. The gasification option includes three different configurations: (1) a fluidized bed gasifier (FBG) with internal combustion engine (ICE), (2) a FBG with organic Rankine cycle (ORC) and (3) a grate gasifier with steam Rankine cycle (SRC). The study is primarily applied to regions where the management system is based on Mechanical Biological Treatment (MBT) plants, generating a large share of refuse (>70%), which is currently landfilled. The specific case of Andalusia, a region in the south of Spain with 23 MBT plants distributed over a region of 87.000 km{sup 2}, where about 80% of municipal solid waste (MSW) is currently landfilled, is taken as main reference; thereafter, the study is further extended to preliminary assess other regions of some European landfill-dominated countries with similar characteristics. The results show that both incineration and gasification improve landfill disposal, contributing favorably to greenhouse gas (GHG) reduction and fulfilling EU environmental regulations, although the three gasification options analyzed yield lower GHG emissions than incineration. In addition, gasification enables better integration of WtE into existing MBT plants, especially in the particular case of Andalusia, where MBT plants are widespread on the region, making it a more promising option than incineration, which is mainly based on large centralized plants, and less socially accepted. From the options analyzed, the WtE scheme based on FBG with ICE gives the highest profitability for a given gate fee, due to much higher electrical efficiency. However, FBG with ORC seems to be a better option in the short-term for landfill-dominated countries, due to its higher technical reliability and the low gate fee currently available in these countries.

29 ENERGY PLANNING, POLICY, AND ECONOMY↗