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At least 595 records · Page 33
All sourcesNASA NTRSDOE OSTI
DOE OSTI2023

Models of resistive wall tearing mode disruptions

Disruptions are a serious issue in tokamaks. In a disruption, the thermal energy is lost by means of an instability which could be a resistive wall tearing mode (RWTM). During precursors to a disruption, the plasma edge region cools, causing the current to contract. Model sequences of contracted current equilibria are given, and their stability is calculated. A linear stability study shows that there is a maximum value of edge q a ≈ 3 for RWTMs to occur. Further, this also implies a minimum rational surface radius normalized to plasma radius from RWTMs to be unstable. Nonlinear simulations are performed using a similar model sequence derived from an equilibrium reconstruction. There is a striking difference in the results, depending on whether the wall is ideal or resistive. With an ideal wall, the perturbations saturate at moderate amplitude, causing a minor disruption without a thermal quench. With a resistive wall, there is a major disruption with a thermal quench, if the edge q a ≤ 3. There is a sharp transition in nonlinear behavior at q a = 3. This is consistent with the linear model and with experiments. If disruptions are caused by RWTMs, then devices with highly conducting walls, such as the International Tokamak Experimental Reactor will experience much milder, tolerable, disruptions than presently predicted.

70 PLASMA PHYSICS AND FUSION TECHNOLOGY↗
DOE OSTI2024

A fungal protein organizes both glycogen and cell wall glucans

Glycogen is a glucose storage molecule composed of branched α-1,4-glucan chains, best known as an energy reserve that can be broken down to fuel central metabolism. Because fungal cells have a specialized need for glucose in building cell wall glucans, we investigated whether glycogen is used for this process. For these studies, we focused on the pathogenic yeast Cryptococcus neoformans, which causes ~150,000 deaths per year worldwide. We identified two proteins that influence formation of both glycogen and the cell wall: glycogenin (Glg1), which initiates glycogen synthesis, and a protein that we call Glucan organizing enzyme 1 (Goe1). We found that cells missing Glg1 lack α-1,4-glucan in their walls, indicating that this material is derived from glycogen. Without Goe1, glycogen rosettes are mislocalized and β-1,3-glucan in the cell wall is reduced. Altogether, our results provide mechanisms for a close association between glycogen and cell wall.

59 BASIC BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES↗
DOE OSTI2026

Structure of domain walls in chiral spin liquids

The chiral spin liquid is a canonical state of quantum spins combining topological and symmetry-breaking order, and possible experimental realizations have attracted growing interest. We examine the physics at interfaces between chiral spin liquid domains of opposite chirality. We show that a self-consistent mean-field description of spinons remains possible in the vicinity of a domain wall and use this to formulate a Ginzburg–Landau theory of the domain wall. The bulk of a chiral spin liquid contains gapped spinon excitations and gauge fluctuations, set by a finite spinon mass and a nonzero spinon Chern number. A third class of excitations consists of amplitude fluctuations of the spinon hoppings, which admit a geometric interpretation in terms of effective vielbein fields. These fluctuations are usually neglected because they are irrelevant for a homogeneous chiral spin liquid and are suppressed in standard large- N treatments. Going beyond the purely topological Chern–Simons limit, we incorporate these fluctuations into an effective field theoretic framework and show that they generate momentum-dependent corrections, including Chern–Simons-like linear terms and higher-order contributions, beyond the universal topological limit. We then analyze nontopological properties, including domain wall tension and edge velocity, and explain how they modify observables relative to the uniform case. These results connect measurable, nonuniversal quantities such as domain wall width, domain wall tension, and edge velocity to microscopic parameters and provide concrete targets for experiments.

domain walls↗
DOE OSTI2022

Pressure Drop Correlation Improvement for the Near-Wall Region of Pebble-Bed Reactors

Packed beds play an important role in several engineering fields, with their applications in nuclear energy being driven by the development of next-generation reactors utilizing pebble fuel. The random nature of a packed pebble bed creates a flow field that is complex and difficult to predict. Porous media models are an attractive option for modeling pebble-bed reactors (PBRs), as they provide intermediate fidelity results and are computationally efficient. Porous media models, however, rely on the use of correlations to estimate the effect of complicated flow features on the pressure drop and heat transfer in the system. Existing correlations were developed to predict the average behavior of the bed, but they are inaccurate in the near-wall region where the presence of the wall affects the pebble packing. This work aims to investigate the accuracy of a porous media model using the Kerntechnischer Ausschuss (KTA) correlation, the most common pressure drop correlation for PBRs compared to the high-fidelity large eddy simulation (LES). A bed of 1568 pebbles is investigated at Reynolds numbers from 625 to 10 000. The bed is divided into five concentric subdomains to compare the average velocity, friction losses, and form losses between the porous media and LES codes. The comparison between the LES simulation and the KTA correlation revealed that the KTA correlation largely underpredicts the form losses in the near-wall region, leading to an overprediction of the velocity near the wall by nearly 30%. An investigation of the form losses across the range of Reynolds numbers in the LES results provided additional insight into how the KTA correlation may be improved to better predict these spatial effects in a pebble bed. These data suggest that the form coefficient near the wall must be increased by 48% while decreasing the form coefficient of the inner bulk region of the bed by 15%. The implementation of these improvements to the KTA correlation in a porous media model produced a radial velocity profile that saw significantly improved agreement with the LES results.

22 GENERAL STUDIES OF NUCLEAR REACTORS↗
DOE OSTI2023

Simultaneous stabilization and control of the n = 1 and n = 2 resistive wall mode

Abstract DIII-D experiments demonstrate simultaneous stability measurements and control of resistive wall modes (RWMs) with toroidal mode numbers n = 1 and n = 2. RWMs with n > 1 are sometimes observed on DIII-D following the successful feedback stabilization of the n = 1 mode, motivating the development of multi- n control. A new model-based multi-mode feedback algorithm based on the VALEN physics code has been implemented on the DIII-D tokamak using a real-time GPU installed directly into the DIII-D plasma control system. In addition to stabilizing RWMs, the feedback seeks to control the stable plasma error field response, enabling compensation of the typically unaddressed DIII-D n = 2 error field component. Experiments recently demonstrated this algorithm’s ability to simultaneously control n = 1 and n = 2 perturbed fields for the first time in a tokamak, using reactor relevant external coils. Control was maintained for hundreds of wall-times above the n = 1 no-wall pressure limit and approaching the n = 1 and n = 2 ideal-wall limits. Furthermore, a rotating non-zero target was set for the feedback, allowing stability to be assessed by monitoring the rotating plasma response (PR) while maintaining control. This novel technique can be viewed as a closed-loop extension of active MHD spectroscopy, which has been used to validate stability models through comparisons of the PR to applied, open-loop perturbations. The closed-loop response measurements are consistent with open-loop MHD spectroscopy data over a wide range of β N approaching the n = 1 ideal-wall limit. These PR measurements were then fit to produce both VALEN and single-mode stability models. These models allowed for important plasma stability information to be determined and have been shown to agree with experimentally observed RWM growth rates.

70 PLASMA PHYSICS AND FUSION TECHNOLOGY↗
DOE OSTI2024

Wall heating by subcritical energetic electrons generated by the runaway electron avalanche source *

Abstract Subcritical energetic electrons (SEEs) produced by the runaway electron (RE) avalanche source at energies below the runaway threshold are found to be the primary contributor to surface heating of plasma-facing components (PFCs) during final loss events. This finding is supported by theoretical analysis, computational modeling with the Kinetic Orbit Runaway electrons Code (KORC), and qualitative agreement with DIII-D experimental observations. The avalanche source generates significantly more secondary electrons below the runaway threshold, which thermalize rapidly when well-confined. However, during a final loss event, the RE beam impacts the first wall, and SEEs are deconfined before they can thermalize. Additionally, because the energy deposition length decreases faster than energy, the deposited energy density, and thus the maximum PFC surface temperature change, is larger for SEEs than REs. KORC simulations employ an analytic first wall to model particle deconfinement onto a non-axisymmetric wall composed of individual tiles. PFC surface heating is calculated using a 1D model extended to include an energy-dependent deposition length scale. Simulations of DIII-D qualitatively agree with infrared (IR) imaging only when SEEs from the avalanche source are included. These results demonstrate that SEEs are the dominant contributor to PFC surface heating and indicate that the avalanche source plays a critical role in the PFC damage caused during final loss events. The prominence of SEEs also has important implications for interpreting IR imaging, one of the primary diagnostics for RE-wall interaction diagnosis, despite REs dominating the energy and current density. This result improves predictions of wall damage due to post-disruption REs to estimate material lifetime and design RE mitigation systems for ITER and future reactors.

70 PLASMA PHYSICS AND FUSION TECHNOLOGY↗
DOE OSTI2023

Galactosylation of xyloglucan is essential for the stabilization of the actin cytoskeleton and endomembrane system through the proper assembly of cell walls

Abstract Xyloglucan, a major hemicellulose, interacts with cellulose and pectin to assemble primary cell walls in plants. Loss of the xyloglucan galactosyltransferase MURUS3 (MUR3) leads to the deficiency of galactosylated xyloglucan and perturbs plant growth. However, it is unclear whether defects in xyloglucan galactosylation influence the synthesis of other wall polysaccharides, cell wall integrity, cytoskeleton behaviour, and endomembrane homeostasis. Here, we found that in mur3-7 etiolated seedlings cellulose was reduced, CELLULOSE SYNTHASE (CESA) genes were down-regulated, the density and mobility of cellulose synthase complexes (CSCs) were decreased, and cellulose microfibrils become discontinuous. Pectin, rhamnogalacturonan II (RGII), and boron contents were reduced in mur3-7 plants, and B-RGII cross-linking was abnormal. Wall porosity and thickness were significantly increased in mur3-7 seedlings. Endomembrane aggregation was also apparent in the mur3-7 mutant. Furthermore, mutant seedlings and their actin filaments were more sensitive to Latrunculin A (LatA) treatment. However, all defects in mur3-7 mutants were substantially restored by exogenous boric acid application. Our study reveals the importance of MUR3-mediated xyloglucan galactosylation for cell wall structural assembly and homeostasis, which is required for the stabilization of the actin cytoskeleton and the endomembrane system.

59 BASIC BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES↗
DOE OSTI2017

Shape of magnetic domain walls formed by coupling to mobile charges

Magnetic domain walls, which are crucially important in both fundamental physics and technical applications, often have a preference in their form due to many different origins, such as the crystalline shape, lattice symmetry, and magnetic anisotropy. Here we theoretically investigate yet another origin stemming from the coupling to mobile charges in itinerant magnets. Performing a large-scale numerical simulation in a minimal model for itinerant magnets, i.e., the Kondo lattice model with classical localized spins, we show that the shape of magnetic domain walls depends on the electronic band structure and electron filling. While Néel and 120° antiferromagnetic states do not show a strong preference in the shape of domain walls, noncoplanar spin states with scalar chiral ordering have distinct directional preferences of the domain walls depending on the electron filling. We find that the directional preference is rationalized by the wave-number dependence of the effective magnetic interactions induced by the mobile charges, which are set by the band structure and electron filling. Finally, we also observe that, in the noncoplanar chiral states, an electric current is induced along the domain walls owing to the spin Berry phase mechanism, with different spatial distributions depending on whether the bulk state is metallic or insulating.

71 CLASSICAL AND QUANTUM MECHANICS, GENERAL PHYSIC↗
DOE OSTI2018

Identification of an algal xylan synthase indicates that there is functional orthology between algal and plant cell wall biosynthesis

Summary Insights into the evolution of plant cell walls have important implications for comprehending these diverse and abundant biological structures. In order to understand the evolving structure–function relationships of the plant cell wall, it is imperative to trace the origin of its different components. The present study is focused on plant 1,4‐β‐xylan, tracing its evolutionary origin by genome and transcriptome mining followed by phylogenetic analysis, utilizing a large selection of plants and algae. It substantiates the findings by heterologous expression and biochemical characterization of a charophyte alga xylan synthase. Of the 12 known gene classes involved in 1,4‐β‐xylan formation, XYS 1/ IRX 10 in plants, IRX 7, IRX 8, IRX 9, IRX 14 and GUX occurred for the first time in charophyte algae. An XYS 1/ IRX 10 ortholog from Klebsormidium flaccidum , designated K. flaccidum XYLAN SYNTHASE ‐1 ( Kf XYS 1), possesses 1,4‐β‐xylan synthase activity, and 1,4‐β‐xylan occurs in the K. flaccidum cell wall. These data suggest that plant 1,4‐β‐xylan originated in charophytes and shed light on the origin of one of the key cell wall innovations to occur in charophyte algae, facilitating terrestrialization and emergence of polysaccharide‐based plant cell walls.

59 BASIC BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES↗
DOE OSTI2025

Mesophyll conductance and cell wall composition: insights from a meta‐analysis across species

Mesophyll conductance (g m ) plays a critical role in plant photosynthesis by regulating the diffusion of CO 2 from substomatal cavities to the site of carbon fixation within the chloroplasts. Despite its importance, our understanding of the factors influencing g m , particularly the role of cell wall properties, remains incomplete. In this issue of New Phytologist , Roig-Oliver et al. ( 2025 ; pp. 2384–2391) address this knowledge gap through a comprehensive meta-analysis across multiple species from the major clades of land plants. By analyzing trends in g m and two other key physiological parameters – the ratio of pectin to cellulose and hemicellulose in the cell wall by weight (P/(C + H)), and cell wall thickness (T cw ) – their findings reveal strong correlations of gm with the combination of P/(C + H) and T cw , where g m is directly proportional to P/(C + H) and inversely proportional to T cw . This work not only underscores the influence of cell wall composition on CO 2 diffusion but also provides a valuable framework for further experimental and modeling studies. By shedding light on the dynamic properties of cell walls, shaped by both composition and environmental regulation, this study opens new frontiers for understanding and improving photosynthesis.

59 BASIC BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES↗
DOE OSTI2022

Cell wall ester modifications and volatile emission signatures of plant response to abiotic stress

Abstract Growth suppression and defence signalling are simultaneous strategies that plants invoke to respond to abiotic stress. Here, we show that the drought stress response of poplar trees ( Populus trichocarpa ) is initiated by a suppression in cell wall derived methanol (MeOH) emissions and activation of acetic acid (AA) fermentation defences. Temperature sensitive emissions dominated by MeOH (AA/MeOH <30%) were observed from physiologically active leaves, branches, detached stems, leaf cell wall isolations and whole ecosystems. In contrast, drought treatment resulted in a suppression of MeOH emissions and strong enhancement in AA emissions together with volatiles acetaldehyde, ethanol, and acetone. These drought‐induced changes coincided with a reduction in stomatal conductance, photosynthesis, transpiration, and leaf water potential. The strong enhancement in AA/MeOH emission ratios during drought (400%–3500%) was associated with an increase in acetate content of whole leaf cell walls, which became significantly 13 C 2 ‐labelled following the delivery of 13 C 2 ‐acetate via the transpiration stream. The results are consistent with both enzymatic and nonenzymatic MeOH and AA production at high temperature in hydrated tissues associated with accelerated primary cell wall growth processes, which are downregulated during drought. While the metabolic source(s) require further investigation, the observations are consistent with drought‐induced activation of aerobic fermentation driving high rates of foliar AA emissions and enhancements in leaf cell wall O ‐acetylation. We suggest that atmospheric AA/MeOH emission ratios could be useful as a highly sensitive signal in studies investigating environmental and biological factors influencing growth‐defence trade‐offs in plants and ecosystems.

59 BASIC BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES↗
DOE OSTI2018

Oxalyltransferase, a plant cell-wall acyltransferase activity, transfers oxalate groups from ascorbate metabolites to carbohydrates

In the plant apoplast, ascorbate is oxidised, via dehydroascorbic acid, to O -oxalyl esters [oxalyl- L -threonate (OxT) and cyclic oxalyl- L -threonate (cOxT)]. We tested whether OxT and cOxT can donate the oxalyl group in transacylation reactions to form oxalyl-polysaccharides, potentially modifying the cell wall. [ oxalyl - 14 C]OxT was incubated with living spinach ( Spinacia oleracea ) and Arabidopsis cell-suspension cultures in the presence or absence of proposed acceptor substrates (carbohydrates). In addition, [ 14 C]OxT and [ 14 C]cOxT were incubated in vitro with cell-wall enzyme preparations plus proposed acceptor substrates. Radioactive products were monitored electrophoretically. Oxalyltransferase activity was detected. Living cells incorporated oxalate groups from OxT into cell-wall polymers via ester bonds. When sugars were added, [ 14 C]oxalyl-sugars were formed, in competition with OxT hydrolysis. Preferred acceptor substrates were carbohydrates possessing primary alcohols e.g. glucose. A model transacylation product, [ 14 C]oxalyl-glucose, was relatively stable in vivo (half-life > 24 h), whereas [ 14 C]OxT underwent rapid turnover (half-life ~6 h). Ionically wall-bound enzymes catalysed similar transacylation reactions in vitro with OxT or cOxT as oxalyl donor substrates and any of a range of sugars or hemicelluloses as acceptor substrates. Glucosamine was O -oxalylated, not N-oxalylated. We conclude that plants possess apoplastic acyltransferase (oxalyltransferase) activity that transfers oxalyl groups from ascorbate catabolites to carbohydrates, forming relatively long-lived O -oxalyl-carbohydrates. The findings increase the range of known metabolites whose accumulation in vivo indicates vitamin C catabolism. Possible signalling roles of the resulting oxalyl-sugars can now be investigated, as can the potential ability of polysaccharide oxalylation to modify the wall's physical properties.

59 BASIC BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES↗
NASA NTRSDate not supplied

Wall-modeled LES of Flow Over a Gaussian Bump

We perform wall-modeled large eddy simulations (WMLES) of turbulent flow over a Gaussian-shaped bump geometry, to assess its performance in the acceleration and separation regions of the flow. An unstructured finite-volume solver is used along with an equilibrium wall model. The Mach number of the oncoming flow selected for the simulation is 0.176, and two Reynolds numbers (Re) are simulated that are about 10000 and 36000 based on boundary layer thickness upstream of the bump. Spanwise periodic results for the lower Re case are compared with the available DNS data, while the full three-dimensional simulation results for the higher Re case are compared to available experimental data. Sensitivity of WMLES results are assessed for a number of factors including grid resolution, wall model exchange location, type of wall model, and unstructured grid topology. The WMLES results for the lower Re case agree well with available DNS data in terms of the wall pressure variation, velocity and turbulent stress profile comparisons. The skin-friction predictions show a reduced tendency to separate. This appears to be accentuated for the higher Re case, for the medium resolution grid used in this study, where WMLES does not predict any flow separation in the mean, which is in contrast to the large separation bubble observed in the experiments.

turbulence↗
DOE OSTI2016

Plasma-wall interaction in an electrostatic sheath of plasma containing a monoenergetic electron beam

The plasma-wall interaction in the presence of a monoenergetic electron beam has been studied by taking into account the self-consistency among plasma transport in a collisionless electrostatic sheath, deposited energy flux at the wall and material thermal response for carbon and tungsten as wall materials. The variations of the potential drop across the sheath, ion velocity at the sheath edge, and surface temperature of material as a function of electron beam flux are explored in the presence of the electron emission. It is found that when electron beam does not dominate the sheath, potential drop across the sheath depends strongly on the material properties due to the impact of electron emission while the surface temperature of material shows monotonic variation. In the case of carbon wall, the electron beam may dominate the sheath at a certain electron beam concentration or energy. Under this circumstance, both the potential drop across the sheath and surface temperature of material demonstrate the sharp increasing transition. The development of local hot spot on the plasma facing material is caused by the enhanced ion energy flux instead of the electron beam energy flux. If the electron emission is not taken into account, as a smaller electron beam flux, both the potential drop across the sheath and surface temperature of material display the significant change and then it may be easier to develop for the local hot spot on the plasma facing material.

70 PLASMA PHYSICS AND FUSION TECHNOLOGY↗
DOE OSTI2023

Reflections on bubble walls

We discuss the dynamics of expanding bubble walls in the presence of massive dark photons whose mass changes as they cross the wall. For sufficiently thin walls, we show that there exists a transient kinematic regime characterized by a constant reflection probability of longitudinal — but not transverse — modes. This effect can have important implications for the dynamics of expanding vacuum bubbles in the early Universe. Most notably, it leads to a new source of pressure on the expanding interface, featuring a non-monotonic dependence on the γ-factor of the bubble walls and reaching a peak at intermediate γ-factors that we dub Maximum Dynamic Pressure. When this pressure is large enough to halt the acceleration of the bubble walls, the difference in vacuum energy densities goes into making a fraction of the dark photons relativistic, turning them into dark radiation. If the dark radiation remains relativistic until late times, an observable contribution to ΔNeff is possible for phase transitions with strength α ~ 10 -2 - 10 -1 .

79 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS↗
DOE OSTI2021

Parametric and sensitivity analysis of a PCM-integrated wall for optimal thermal load modulation in lightweight buildings

Load modulation in buildings is becoming increasingly important due to growing disparity in energy demand during peak and off-peak hours. Integrating phase change material (PCM) in building envelopes and using a controlled precooling strategy can provide substantial thermal load modulation; however, it may greatly increase the total energy use. Previous studies have employed PCM in building envelopes primarily for energy savings and, to some extent, peak load shedding and shifting. However, the load modulation capacity of a PCM-integrated envelope has not been well explored in the literature. In this study, we perform an extensive parametric and sensitivity analysis on PCM-integrated lightweight building walls and examine the combinatory effects of various PCM parameters on thermal load modulation and wall-related heat gains in buildings. Using numerical simulations, we investigate eight PCM parameters: PCM location in the wall, transition temperature, thickness, latent heat, transition range, density, specific heat, and thermal conductivity. Here, we evaluate their impact and relative importance to achieve maximum load modulation in buildings without compromising occupants’ thermal comfort or total energy use. The results show that the optimized PCM proposed in this study can completely invert the transient heat gain profile of the wall, providing up to 70% reduction of wall-related heat gain during peak hours without a major increase in the cumulative heat gain.

42 ENGINEERING↗
DOE OSTI2019

Linkage structure of cell-wall polysaccharides from three duckweed species

Rapid growth and easily digestible walls that are naturally low in lignin make the aquatic plant family Lemnaceae, or duckweed, a promising feedstock for biofuel production. Monosaccharide and linkage analysis of cell walls from three species of duckweed: Spirodela polyrhiza, Lemna gibba, and Wolffia australiana showed that apiogalacturonans and/or xylogalacturonans, and smaller amounts of rhamnogalacturonan I, constituted 57%, 51% and 48% of their respective wall mass. Hemicellulosic xylan, xyloglucan, and glucomannan made up lesser amounts wall mass across the three species. Apiose residues were either non-reducing terminal or 3'-linked, but their ratios varied substantially from nearly 1:1 for S. polyrhiza and 2:1 for L. gibba, to 10:1 for W. australiana. These findings will help guide future research to design efficient strategies for disassembly of duckweed cell walls into sugars and uronic acids for conversion of duckweed biomass into usable fuel, and to facilitate extraction of other bioproducts from its polysaccharides.

59 BASIC BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES↗
DOE OSTI2025

Assessing the hygrothermal performance of bio-based materials in building wall systems

Building envelope systems are crucial in regulating thermal and moisture exchange between interior and exterior environments, accounting for approximately 28 % of building energy consumption in the United States with walls being the primary contributors. Improper selection of building envelope materials can lead to moisture-related issues, reduced resilience, and compromised durability. Hygrothermal performance assessment is a key factor in efficient building design. As such, improving the energy and hygrothermal performance of opaque wall materials, through careful assessment of material choices, is essential to enhancing building resilience, lowering energy costs, and improving occupant comfort. As the building industry seeks new strategies to reduce material energy intensity, bio-based materials emerge as a promising solution. However, their long-term hygrothermal performance in building envelope systems remains underexplored. To fill this gap, this study evaluates the hygrothermal behavior of 13 bio-based materials in residential wall systems across three U.S. climate zones. Laboratory experiments were performed to measure material properties such as density, thermal conductivity, moisture transmission, and sorption isotherms. These data were integrated into the WUFI® simulation tool to assess wall hygrothermal performance in Houston, Baltimore, and Chicago. A three-phase modeling approach was used: (1) baseline residential walls with oriented strand board (OSB) and gypsum board; (2) replacing OSB with bio-based materials; and (3) replacing drywall with bio-based materials. Results showed that the evaluated bio-based materials maintained acceptable moisture thresholds of ≤ 16 % across all climates, confirming their viability as an alternative for current sheathing materials. Furthermore, this study provides a foundation for future research and innovation in material science on the use of certain bio-based materials in high-performance, low energy use residential construction. Ultimately, providing critical data, offering a database of bio-based material properties, and supplying a simulation-based approach will help designers make informed decisions for future efficient building practices.

Bio-based materials↗