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Search indexed NASA NTRS and DOE OSTI research on propulsion, heat transfer, battery materials and energy systems. Follow report and document links to the original sources.

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At least 595 records · Page 33
All sourcesNASA NTRSDOE OSTI
DOE OSTI2012

ON THE ELECTRONIC STRUCTURE OF ISOLATED MONO-DEHYDROGENATED POLYAROMATIC HYDROCARBON IONS AND THEIR ASTROPHYSICAL RELEVANCE

The attribution of the unidentified infrared bands to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) molecules is a key argument for their abundant occurrence in interstellar environments, which has important implications for interstellar chemistry. In contrast to terrestrial conditions, their transient forms are of importance in the low-density astrophysical environments. Here, the gas-phase IR spectra of three PAH molecules in a carbocation state (naphthyl{sup +}, C{sub 10}H{sub 7}{sup +}; phenanthryl{sup +}, C{sub 14}H{sub 9}{sup +}; and pyrenyl{sup +}, C{sub 16}H{sub 9}{sup +}) are investigated by action spectroscopy methods using an infrared free electron laser and an ion-trap mass spectrometer. The IR spectra of the mono-dehydrogenated PAH{sup +} (aryl) ions in the 6-18 {mu}m spectral range are compared to computed IR spectra for various structural isomers of the aryl ions; the comparison indicates that the most stable structures under isolated conditions have a triplet electronic configuration. Electronic structure calculations on systems as large as the mono-dehydrogenated circumcoronene cation (C{sub 54}H{sub 17}{sup +}) provide further evidence for the higher stability of a triplet state as compared with the singlet state. Moreover, the gas-phase IR spectra reveal that the IR signatures of a PAH cation before and after H-atom loss are very similar, in particular in the 6-9 {mu}m region involving the skeletal CC stretching modes, so that triplet mono-dehydrogenated PAH ions are similarly compliant with the general match between PAH mid-IR features and the interstellar unidentified infrared emissions. The establishment of a triplet electronic ground state suggests that interstellar scenarios should consider the possible influence of triplet aromatic chemistry as well as the possible influence of the altered optical properties of triplet PAH species.

74 ATOMIC AND MOLECULAR PHYSICS↗
DOE OSTI2018

Methods and compositions for the upconversion of light

The present invention generally relates to composition and methods for upconverting light. In some embodiments, the composition and methods comprise an organic material, a nanocrystal, and a ligand capable of facilitating energy transfer between the nanocrystal and the organic material. In certain embodiments, the nanocrystal has a first excited energy state with an energy greater than a triplet state of the organic material. The organic material, in some embodiments, may be aromatic and/or include one or more pi-conjugated carbon-carbon double bonds. In some cases, incident light may be absorbed by the nanocrystal to produce triplet excitons. The triplet excitons may then transfer from the nanocrystal to the organic material and undergo triplet-triplet annihilation, creating a singlet state of approximately twice the energy of the triplet exciton. In certain embodiments, the singlet state fluoresces, resulting in the formation of a high energy photon.

72 PHYSICS OF ELEMENTARY PARTICLES AND FIELDS↗
DOE OSTI2020

Photochemical Upconversion in Water Using Cu(I) MLCT Excited States: Role of Energy Shuttling at the Micellar/Water Interface

Photochemical upconversion (UC) through triplet–triplet annihilation (TTA), which employs a visible absorbing triplet photosensitizer and an annihilator, is a process that generates a high energy photon from two lower energy photons. TTA-UC has been largely developed in pure organic solvents and solid-state polymeric constructs while featuring near exclusive use of rare and expensive metals within the photosensitizer. In this current investigation, we demonstrate that TTA-UC from the long lifetime earth-abundant photosensitizer [Cu(dsbtmp) 2 ](PF) 6 (dsbtmp = 2,9-di(sec-butyl)-3,4,7,8-tetramethyl-1,10-phenanthroline), abbreviated as Cu-PS, functions in water through encapsulation within a cationic-based assembly. Cetyltrimethylammonium bromide was the surfactant of choice as it electrostatically binds the negatively charged water-soluble 10-phenylanthracene-9-carboxylate (PAC) acceptor/annihilator and ultimately facilitates energy transfer across the interface. Efficient triplet–triplet energy transfer (TTET) from Cu-PS to the PAC acceptor was achieved in this aqueous assembly. Unfortunately, the hindered mobility of the PAC moieties ultimately hampered the annihilation process, and this was reflected in attenuated TTA rates and efficiencies. The combined experimental data illustrated that the water-soluble PAC acceptor was able to vectorially deliver the excited-state energy stored in Cu-PS across the interface into the bulk aqueous solution by engaging in excited-state electron transfer with methyl viologen acceptors. Lastly, these results are important for remotely operating photoredox reactions in water while rendering a photosensitizer spatially isolated in the hydrophobic core of a micelle.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2018

Control of Energy Flow Dynamics between Tetracene Ligands and PbS Quantum Dots by Size Tuning and Ligand Coverage

We have prepared a series of samples with the ligand 6,13-bistri(iso-propyl)silylethynyl tetracene 2-carboxylic acid (TIPS-Tc-COOH) attached to PbS quantum dot (QD) samples of three different sizes in order to monitor and control the extent and time scales of energy flow after photoexcitation. Fast energy transfer (~1 ps) to the PbS QD occurs upon direct excitation of the ligand for all samples. The largest size QD maintains the microsecond exciton lifetime characteristic of the as-prepared oleate terminated PbS QDs. However, two smaller QD sizes with lowest exciton energies similar to or larger than the TIPS-Tc-COO- triplet energy undergo energy transfer between QD core and ligand triplet on nanosecond to microsecond timescales. For the intermediate size QDs in particular, energy can be recycled many times between ligand and core, but the triplet remains the dominant excited species at long times, living for ~3 us for fully exchanged QDs and up to 30 us for partial ligand exchange, which is revealed as a method for controlling the triplet lifetime. A unique upconverted luminescence spectrum is observed that results from annihilation of triplets after exclusive excitation of the QD core.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2014

Electronic structure and reactivity in water splitting of the iron oxide dimers and their hexacarbonyls: A density functional study

The iron oxide dimers (FeO){sub 2} and their peroxide isomers are studied with the B3LYP density functional as bare clusters and as hexacarbonyls. Among the bare clusters the planar four-member ring structures are more stable than the non-planar ones and the rhombic dioxide Fe{sub 2}O{sub 2} with antiferromagnetically ordered electrons on iron centers is the global minimum. Water adsorption on the bare diiron dioxide is exothermic, but dissociation does not occur. Carbonylation favors a non-planar Fe{sub 2}O{sub 2} ring for both the dioxides and the peroxides and high electron density at the Fe centers is induced, evidenced by the natural charge distribution, the high proton affinity, and the values of global electronegativity and hardness. The iron dioxide hexacarbonyl Fe{sub 2}O{sub 2}(CO){sub 6} is diamagnetic in the state of the global minimum. It is separated from the next low-lying triplet state by a small energy gap of 0.22 eV. Time-dependent density functional theory methods were applied to examine electron excitations from the ground state to the low-lying triplet states in the hexacarbonyls and their adsorption complexes with water. Singlet-to-triplet state excitations occur via ligand-to-metal charge transfer in the hexacarbonyls; in the adsorption complexes excitations from the oxygen lone pairs to the adsorption center also occur and they appear in the IR-visible region. The lowest energy singlet and triplet state reaction paths for water splitting were followed. On the singlet potential energy surface (PES), water splitting is spontaneous, while for the triplet PES an activation barrier of 14.1 kJ mol{sup −1} was determined.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗
DOE OSTI2018

Photoelectron spectroscopy of anthracene and fluoranthene radical anions

Here, we report the slow electron velocity map imaging spectroscopy of cryogenically cooled anthracene and fluoranthene radical anions, two similarly sized polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon molecules. The results allow us to examine the lowest energy singlet and triplet states in the neutral molecules on equal footing from the anionic ground state. The analysis of the experimental spectra is aided by harmonic calculations and Franck-Condon simulations, which generally show good agreement with experimental values and spectra. The electron affinity of fluoranthene is measured to be 0.757(2) eV, which is larger than that of anthracene at 0.532(3) eV. The lowest energy triplet state in anthracene is observed at 1.872(3) eV above the singlet ground state, while that of fluoranthene is observed at 2.321(2) eV above its singlet ground state. Comparisons of experimental and calculated spectra show that in addition to the Franck-Condon active modes, there is a clear presence of vibrational modes that gain intensity via vibronic coupling in both the singlet and triplet states in both molecules. In addition, the triplet state generally exhibits increased vibronic coupling compared to the singlet state, with the fluoranthene triplet state exhibiting evidence of distortion from C 2v symmetry.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗
DOE OSTI2012

Laser photolysis of fluorone dyes in a chitosan matrix

Kinetics of laser-induced photobleaching of fluorone dyes (fluorescein, dibromofluorescein, eosin Y, erythrosin B, Rose Bengal) is studied in a chitosan matrix. For all dyes the bleaching kinetics at the intensities of laser radiation 0.7 - 11.9 W cm{sup -2} demonstrates quasi-monomolecular behaviour. The results are analysed using a kinetic model, based on the four-level (S{sub 0}, S{sub 1}, T{sub 1}, T{sub n}) scheme of the dye with chemically active triplet states taken into account. It is shown that the rate constants of the chemical reaction involving higher triplet states in the dyes studied amount to (3.9 - 18.6) Multiplication-Sign 10{sup 6} s{sup -1} and exceed the analogous values for the reaction involving the first lower triplet states by nine orders of magnitude. The rate of reaction involving the first triplet states appeared to be higher by one - two orders of magnitude than that in the case of higher triplet states involved because of low population of the latter. The possible mechanism of dye bleaching with participation of chitosan that consists in reduction of the dye to the leuco form by transfer of hydrogen from the chitosan matrix is discussed. (interaction of laser radiation with matter. laser plasmas)

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗
DOE OSTI2011

Higgs quadruplet for the type III seesaw model and implications for {mu}{yields}e{gamma} and {mu}-e conversion

In the type III seesaw model, the heavy neutrinos are contained in leptonic triplet representations. The Yukawa couplings of the triplet fermion and the left-handed neutrinos with the doublet Higgs field produce the Dirac mass terms. Together with the Majorana masses for the leptonic triplets, the light neutrinos obtain nonzero seesaw masses. We point out that it is also possible to have a quadruplet Higgs field to produce the Dirac mass terms to facilitate the seesaw mechanism. The vacuum expectation value of the quadruplet Higgs is constrained to be small by electroweak precision data. Therefore, the Yukawa couplings of a quadruplet can be much larger than those for a doublet. We also find that unlike the usual type III seesaw model where at least two copies of leptonic triplets are needed, with both doublet and quadruplet Higgs representations, just one leptonic triplet is possible to have a phenomenologically acceptable model because light neutrino masses can receive sizable contributions at both tree and one-loop levels. Large Yukawa couplings of the quadruplet can induce observable effects for lepton flavor violating processes {mu}{yields}e{gamma} and {mu}-e conversion. Implications of the recent {mu}{yields}e{gamma} limit from MEG and the limit on {mu}-e conversion on Au are also given. Some interesting collider signatures for the doubly charged Higgs boson in the quadruplet are discussed.

72 PHYSICS OF ELEMENTARY PARTICLES AND FIELDS↗
DOE OSTI2012

Beam optics and the pp2pp experiment at RHIC

The newly installed forward detector system at the STAR experiment at RHIC measures small angle elastic and inelastic scattering of polarized protons on polarized protons. The detector system makes use of a pair of Roman Pot (RP) detectors, instrumented with silicon detectors, and located on either side of the STAR intersection region downstream of the DX and D0 dipoles and quadrupole triplets. The parallel to point optics is designed so that scattering angles are determined from position measurements at the RP's with small error. The RP setup allows measurement of position and angle for a subset of the scattered protons. With this position/angle correlations at the RP's can be compared with optics model predictions to get a measure of the accuracy of the quadrupole triplet current settings. The current in each quadrupole in the triplets is comprised of sums and differences of up to six power supplies and an overall 1% error in the triplet field strengths results in a 4% error in four-momentum transfer squared. This technique is also useful to check the polarity of the skew elements located in each quadrupole triplet. Results of the analysis will be presented.

43 PARTICLE ACCELERATORS↗
DOE OSTI2025

Increasing the Stability of Deep Blue Phosphor‐Sensitized OLEDs Using the Polariton‐Enhanced Purcell Effect

Abstract The stability of efficient, deep blue organic light‐emitting diodes (OLEDs) remains a major challenge in the field of organic electronics. Poor device stability originates from the high probability for destructive non‐radiative triplet exciton annihilation events. Phosphor‐sensitized fluorescence (PSF) is proposed to achieve an efficient, deep blue color by energy transfer from phosphors to fluorophores. Recently, the polariton‐enhanced Purcell (PEP) effect is introduced to decrease the triplet radiative lifetime and density, resulting in an increase in blue phosphorescent OLED lifetime. Here, the PEP effect is introduced to enhance the stability of the PSF‐OLEDs. It is shown that the PEP effect increases all radiative decay rates of the phosphors and fluorophores, leading to a reduction in the triplet annihilation events. Using a Pt‐complex phosphor sensitizer and a so‐called multi‐resonance fluorescent emitter in a PEP cavity, a 3.1‐fold lifetime increase is observed at a current density ofJ= 10 mA cm −2 , reduced EQE roll‐off and deep blue color with Commission Internationale de l'Eclairage coordinates of (0.13, 0.09). The PEP effect maximally extends PSF‐OLED lifetimes in devices with the highest triplet‐to‐singlet energy transfer rates. Moreover, this work suggests that the benefits of PEPs apply to all triplet‐based OLEDs.

Chemistry↗
DOE OSTI2017

1,3-Diphenylisobenzofuran: a Model Chromophore for Singlet Fission

In this review we first provide an introductory description of the singlet fission phenomenon and then describe the ground and electronically excited states of the parent 1,3-diphenylisobenzofuran chromophore (1) and about a dozen of its derivatives. A discussion of singlet fission in thin polycrystalline layers of these materials follows. The highest quantum yield of triplet formation by singlet fission, 200% at 80 K, is found in one of the two known crystal modification of the parent. In the other modification and in many derivatives, excimer formation competes successfully and triplet yields are low. A description of solution photophysics of covalent dimers is described in the next section. Triplet yields are very low, but interesting phenomena are uncovered. One is an observation of a separated-charges (charge-transfer) intermediate in highly polar solvents. The other is an observation of excitation isomerism in both singlet and triplet states, where in one isomer the excitation is delocalized over both halves of the covalent dimer, whereas in the other it is localized on one of the halves. In the last section we present the operation of a simple device illustrating the use of triplets generated by singlet fission for charge separation.

1,3-Diphenylisobenzofuran↗
DOE OSTI2018

Displaced vertex signatures of doubly charged scalars in the type-II seesaw and its left-right extensions

The type-II seesaw mechanism with an isospin-triplet scalar Δ L provides one of the most compelling explanations for the observed smallness of neutrino masses. The triplet contains a doubly-charged component $H^{±±}_{L}$, which dominantly decays to either same-sign dileptons or to a pair of W bosons, depending on the size of the triplet vacuum expectation value. However, there exists a range of Yukawa couplings ƒ L of the triplet to the charged leptons, wherein a relatively light $H^{±±}_{L}$ tends to be long-lived, giving rise to distinct displaced-vertex signatures at the high-energy colliders. We find that the displaced vertex signals from the leptonic decays $H^{±±}_{L} → ℓ^±_αℓ^±_β$ could probe a broad parameter space with 10 -10 ≲ |ƒ L | ≲ 10 -6 and 45.6 GeV<$M_{H^{±±}_{L}}$≲200 GeV at the high-luminosity LHC. Similar sensitivity can also be achieved at a future 1 TeV e + e - collider. The mass reach can be extended to about 500GeV at a future 100TeV proton-proton collider. Similar conclusions apply for the right-handed triplet $H^{±±}_{R}$ in the TeV-scale left-right symmetric models, which provide a natural embedding of the type-II seesaw. We show that the displaced vertex signals are largely complementary to the prompt same-sign dilepton pair searches at the LHC and the low-energy, high-intensity/precision measurements, such as neutrinoless double beta decay, charged lepton flavor violation, electron and muon anomalous magnetic moments, muonium-antimuonium oscillation and Møller scattering.

71 CLASSICAL AND QUANTUM MECHANICS, GENERAL PHYSIC↗
DOE OSTI2017

1,3-Diphenylisobenzofuran: a Model Chromophore for Singlet Fission

In this review we first provide an introductory description of the singlet fission phenomenon and then describe the ground and electronically excited states of the parent 1,3-diphenylisobenzofuran chromophore (1) and about a dozen of its derivatives. A discussion of singlet fission in thin polycrystalline layers of these materials follows. The highest quantum yield of triplet formation by singlet fission, 200% at 80 K, is found in one of the two known crystal modification of the parent. In the other modification and in many derivatives, excimer formation competes successfully and triplet yields are low. A description of solution photophysics of covalent dimers is described in the next section. Triplet yields are very low, but interesting phenomena are uncovered. One is an observation of a separated-charges (charge-transfer) intermediate in highly polar solvents. The other is an observation of excitation isomerism in both singlet and triplet states, where in one isomer the excitation is delocalized over both halves of the covalent dimer, whereas in the other it is localized on one of the halves. Finally, in the last section we present the operation of a simple device illustrating the use of triplets generated by singlet fission for charge separation.

1,3-diphenylisobenzofuran↗
DOE OSTI2023

Energy dissipation efficiency in the CP43 assembly intermediate complex of photosystem II

Photosystem II in oxygenic organisms is a large membrane bound rapidly turning over pigment protein complex. During its biogenesis, multiple assembly intermediates are formed, including the CP43-preassembly complex (pCP43). Here, to understand the energy transfer dynamics in pCP43, we first engineered a His-tagged version of the CP43 in a CP47-less strain of the cyanobacterium Synechocystis 6803. Isolated pCP43 from this engineered strain was subjected to advanced spectroscopic analysis to evaluate its excitation energy dissipation characteristics. These included measurements of steady-state absorption and fluorescence emission spectra for which correlation was tested with Stepanov relation. Comparison of fluorescence excitation and absorptance spectra determined that efficiency of energy transfer from β-carotene to chlorophyll a is 39 %. Time-resolved fluorescence images of pCP43-bound Chl a were recorded on streak camera, and fluorescence decay dynamics were evaluated with global fitting. These demonstrated that the decay kinetics strongly depends on temperature and buffer used to disperse the protein sample and fluorescence decay lifetime was estimated in 3.2–5.7 ns time range, depending on conditions. The pCP43 complex was also investigated with femtosecond and nanosecond time-resolved absorption spectroscopy upon excitation of Chl a and β-carotene to reveal pathways of singlet excitation relaxation/decay, Chl a triplet dynamics and Chl a → β-carotene triplet state sensitization process. The latter demonstrated that Chl a triplet in the pCP43 complex is not efficiently quenched by carotenoids. Finally, detailed kinetic analysis of the rise of the population of β-carotene triplets determined that the time constant of the carotenoid triplet sensitization is 40 ns.

59 BASIC BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES↗
DOE OSTI2022

Strategies for Computer-Aided Discovery of Novel Open-Shell Polymers

Organic π-conjugated polymers with a triplet ground state have been the focus of recent research for their interesting and unique electronic properties, arising from the presence of the two unpaired electrons. These compounds are usually built from alternating electron-donating and electron-accepting monomer pairs which lower the HOMO–LUMO gap and yield a triplet state instead of the typical singlet ground state. In this paper, we use density functional theory calculations to explore the design rules that govern the creation of a ground-state triplet conjugated polymer and find that a small HOMO–LUMO gap in the singlet state is the best predictor for the existence of a triplet ground state, compared to previous use of a pro-quinoidal bonding character. Furthermore, this work can accelerate the discovery of new stable triplet materials by reducing the computational resources needed for electronic-state calculations and the number of potential candidates for synthesis.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2020

Singlet Fission in a para -Azaquinodimethane-Based Quinoidal Conjugated Polymer

The exploitation of singlet fission (SF) in photovoltaic devices is restricted by the limited number of SF materials available and the conflicting requirement of intermolecular interactions to satisfy both efficient SF and subsequent triplet extraction. Intramolecular SF (iSF) represents an emerging alternative and may prove simpler to implement in devices. Here, on account of the excellent chemical structure tunability and solution processability, conjugated polymers have emerged as promising candidates for iSF materials despite being largely underexplored. It remains a significant challenge to develop SF-capable conjugated polymers and achieve efficient dissociation of the formed triplet pairs simultaneously. In this contribution, we present a new iSF material in a para-azaquinodimethane-based quinoidal conjugated polymer. Using transient optical techniques, we show that an ultrafast iSF process dominates the deactivation of the excited state in such polymer, featuring ultrafast population (<1 ps) and stepwise dissociation of triplet pairs. Notably, these multiexciton states could further diffuse apart to produce long-lived free triplets (tens of μs) in strongly coupled aggregates in solid thin film. Such findings not only introduce a new iSF-active conjugated polymer to the rare SF material family but also shed unique insight into interchain interaction-promoted triplet pair dissociation in aggregates of conjugated polymers, thus openning new avenues for developing next-generation SF-based photovoltaic materials.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗
DOE OSTI2022

Visible-Light-Driven, Iridium-Catalyzed Hydrogen Atom Transfer: Mechanistic Studies, Identification of Intermediates, and Catalyst Improvements

The harvesting of visible light is a powerful strategy for the synthesis of weak chemical bonds involving hydrogen that are below the thermodynamic threshold for spontaneous H 2 evolution. Piano-stool iridium hydride complexes are effective for the bluelight- driven hydrogenation of organic substrates and contrathermodynamic dearomative isomerization. In this work, a combination of spectroscopic measurements, isotopic labeling, structure–reactivity relationships, and computational studies has been used to explore the mechanism of these stoichiometric and catalytic reactions. Photophysical measurements on the iridium hydride catalysts demonstrated the generation of long-lived excited states with principally metal-to-ligand charge transfer (MLCT) character. Transient absorption spectroscopic studies with a representative substrate, anthracene revealed a diffusion-controlled dynamic quenching of the MLCT state. The triplet state of anthracene was detected immediately after the quenching events, suggesting that triplet–triplet energy transfer initiated the photocatalytic process. The key role of triplet anthracene on the post-energy transfer step was further demonstrated by employing photocatalytic hydrogenation with a triplet photosensitizer and a HAT agent, hydroquinone. DFT calculations support a concerted hydrogen atom transfer mechanism in lieu of stepwise electron/proton or proton/electron transfer pathways. Kinetic monitoring of the deactivation channel established an inverse kinetic isotope effect, supporting reversible C(sp 2 )–H reductive coupling followed by rate-limiting ligand dissociation. Mechanistic insights enabled design of a piano-stool iridium hydride catalyst with a rationally modified supporting ligand that exhibited improved photostability under blue light irradiation. The complex also provided improved catalytic performance toward photoinduced hydrogenation with H 2 and contra-thermodynamic isomerization.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗
DOE OSTI2019

Sensitization of silicon by singlet exciton fission in tetracene

Silicon dominates contemporary solar cell technologies. Yet when absorbing photons, silicon (like other semiconductors) wastes energy in excess of its bandgap. Reducing these thermalization losses and enabling better sensitivity to light is possible by sensitizing the silicon solar cell using singlet exciton fission, in which two excited states with triplet spin character (triplet excitons) are generated from a photoexcited state of higher energy with singlet spin character (a singlet exciton). Singlet exciton fission in the molecular semiconductor tetracene is known to generate triplet excitons that are energetically matched to the silicon bandgap. When the triplet excitons are transferred to silicon they create additional electron–hole pairs, promising to increase cell efficiencies from the single-junction limit of 29 per cent to as high as 35 per cent. In this report we reduce the thickness of the protective hafnium oxynitride layer at the surface of a silicon solar cell to just eight angstroms, using electric-field-effect passivation to enable the efficient energy transfer of the triplet excitons formed in the tetracene. The maximum combined yield of the fission in tetracene and the energy transfer to silicon is around 133 per cent, establishing the potential of singlet exciton fission to increase the efficiencies of silicon solar cells and reduce the cost of the energy that they generate.

42 ENGINEERING↗