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NASA NTRSDate not supplied

Generative Design and Digital Manufacturing: Using AI and Robots to Build Lightweight Instruments

Digital Engineering technologies are transforming long-stagnant development processes by applying the tremendous advancements in Information Technology (IT) to classical engineering tasks such as design, analysis, and fabrication of space-flight instrument structures. Generative Design leverages developments in Artificial Intelligence (AI) and Cloud computing to enable a paradigm shift in the design process, allowing the engineer to focus on defining the requirements and objectives of the design while AI generates optimized designs which comply with the input requirements. Digital Manufacturing allows these complex lightweight designs to be efficiently manufactured by directly fabricating from the resulting 3D models. The development of these two Digital Engineering technologies realizes significant mass savings while simultaneously reducing structure development time from months to days. This paper describes the development of the Evolved Structures process applying these technologies to spaceflight optical instrument structures including an example demonstrating greater than 10x reduction in development time/cost and greater than 3x improvement in structural performance.

Ryan McClelland↗
NASA NTRS2013

Spatial Statistical Data Fusion (SSDF)

As remote sensing for scientific purposes has transitioned from an experimental technology to an operational one, the selection of instruments has become more coordinated, so that the scientific community can exploit complementary measurements. However, tech nological and scientific heterogeneity across devices means that the statistical characteristics of the data they collect are different. The challenge addressed here is how to combine heterogeneous remote sensing data sets in a way that yields optimal statistical estimates of the underlying geophysical field, and provides rigorous uncertainty measures for those estimates. Different remote sensing data sets may have different spatial resolutions, different measurement error biases and variances, and other disparate characteristics. A state-of-the-art spatial statistical model was used to relate the true, but not directly observed, geophysical field to noisy, spatial aggregates observed by remote sensing instruments. The spatial covariances of the true field and the covariances of the true field with the observations were modeled. The observations are spatial averages of the true field values, over pixels, with different measurement noise superimposed. A kriging framework is used to infer optimal (minimum mean squared error and unbiased) estimates of the true field at point locations from pixel-level, noisy observations. A key feature of the spatial statistical model is the spatial mixed effects model that underlies it. The approach models the spatial covariance function of the underlying field using linear combinations of basis functions of fixed size. Approaches based on kriging require the inversion of very large spatial covariance matrices, and this is usually done by making simplifying assumptions about spatial covariance structure that simply do not hold for geophysical variables. In contrast, this method does not require these assumptions, and is also computationally much faster. This method is fundamentally different than other approaches to data fusion for remote sensing data because it is inferential rather than merely descriptive. All approaches combine data in a way that minimizes some specified loss function. Most of these are more or less ad hoc criteria based on what looks good to the eye, or some criteria that relate only to the data at hand.

Braverman, Amy J.↗
NASA NTRS2012

Evaluation of Precipitation Detection over Various Surfaces from Passive Microwave Imagers and Sounders

During the middle part of this decade a wide variety of passive microwave imagers and sounders will be unified in the Global Precipitation Measurement (GPM) mission to provide a common basis for frequent (3 hr), global precipitation monitoring. The ability of these sensors to detect precipitation by discerning it from non-precipitating background depends upon the channels available and characteristics of the surface and atmosphere. This study quantifies the minimum detectable precipitation rate and fraction of precipitation detected for four representative instruments (TMI, GMI, AMSU-A, and AMSU-B) that will be part of the GPM constellation. Observations for these instruments were constructed from equivalent channels on the SSMIS instrument on DMSP satellites F16 and F17 and matched to precipitation data from NOAA's National Mosaic and QPE (NMQ) during 2009 over the continuous United States. A variational optimal estimation retrieval of non-precipitation surface and atmosphere parameters was used to determine the consistency between the observed brightness temperatures and these parameters, with high cost function values shown to be related to precipitation. The minimum detectable precipitation rate, defined as the lowest rate for which probability of detection exceeds 50%, and the detected fraction of precipitation, are reported for each sensor, surface type (ocean, coast, bare land, snow cover) and precipitation type (rain, mix, snow). The best sensors over ocean and bare land were GMI (0.22 mm/hr minimum threshold and 90% of precipitation detected) and AMSU (0.26 mm/hr minimum threshold and 81% of precipitation detected), respectively. Over coasts (0.74 mm/hr threshold and 12% detected) and snow-covered surfaces (0.44 mm/hr threshold and 23% detected), AMSU again performed best but with much lower detection skill, whereas TMI had no skill over these surfaces. The sounders (particularly over water) benefited from the use of re-analysis data (vs. climatology) to set the a-priori atmospheric state and all instruments benefit from the use of a conditional snow cover emissivity database over land. It is recommended that real-time sources of these data be used in the operational GPM precipitation algorithms.

GPM↗
NASA NTRS1989

A 'figure-of-merit' approach to extraterrestrial resource utilization

An approach for interrelated optimizations in space missions that utilize extraterrestrial resources is developed, consisting in the concept of an overall mission 'figure-of-merit' leading to more realistic designs than through individual performance maximizations. After a brief discussion of this concept, the synthesis of four major components of any future space mission is considered. The four major components are: orbital mechanics of the transportation; performance of the rocket motors; support systems including power, thermal and process controls, and instruments; and in situ resource utilization plant equipment. The Mars Sample Return mission is the basis of an illustration of the proposed concept. A popular spreadsheet is used to quantitatively demonstrate the interdependent nature of the mission optimization. Future prospects are outlined, that promise great economy through extraterrestrial resource utilization and a quick evaluation technique.

Ramohalli, Kumar↗
NASA NTRS2000

Polymeric Coatings for Electrodynamic Tethers

Two polymeric coatings have been developed for the Propulsive Small Expendable Deployer System (ProSEDS) mission. ProSEDS is designed to provide an on-orbit demonstration of the electrodynamic propulsion capabilities of tethers in space. The ProSEDS experiment will be a secondary payload on a Delta II unmanned expendable booster scheduled for launch in August 2000. A 5-km conductive tether is attached to the Delta 11 second stage and collects current from the low Earth orbit (LEO) plasma to facilitate de-orbit of the spent stage. The conductive tether is attached to a 10-km non-conductive tether, the other end of which is attached to an endmass containing several scientific instruments. A bare metal tether would have the best conductivity but thermal concerns preclude this design. A conductive polymer developed by Triton Systems has been optimized for conductivity and thermo-optical properties. The current design for the ProSEDS conductive tether is seven strands of 28 AWG aluminum wire individually coated with 8.7 micrometers (0.35 mil) of an atomic oxygen-resistant conductive polymer composed of a mixture of 87% Clear Oxygen-Resistant polymer (COR) and 13% polyanaline (PANi), wrapped around a braided Kevlar (TM) 49 core. Extensive testing has been performed at the Marshall Space Flight Center (MSFC) to qualify this material for flight on ProSEDS. Atomic oxygen exposure was performed, with solar absorptance and infrared emittance measured before and after exposure. Conductivity was measured before and after atomic oxygen exposure. High voltage tests, up to 1500 V, of the current collecting ability of the COR/PANi have been completed. Approximately 160 meters of the conductive tether closest to the Delta 11 second stage is insulated to prevent any electron reconnection to the tether from the plasma contactor. The insulation is composed of polyimide overcoated with TOR-BP, another polymeric coating developed by Triton for this mission. TOR-BP acts as both insulator and a protective coating against atomic oxygen erosion. The insulation has been tested to withstand 5000 V.

Vaughn, Jason A.↗
NASA NTRS2010

Altitude Variation of the CO2(V2)-O Quenching Rate Coefficient in Mesosphere and Lower Thermosphere

Among the processes governing the energy balance in the mesosphere and lower thermosphere (MLT), the quenching of CO2(v2) vibrational levels by collisions with oxygen atoms plays an important role. However, the k(CO2-O) values measured in the lab and retrieved from atmospheric measurements vary from 1.5 x 10(exp -12)cu cm/s through 9.0 x 10(exp -12)cu cm/s that requires further studying. In this work we used synergistic data from a ground based lidar and a satellite infrared radiometer to estimate k(CO2-O). We used the night- and daytime temperatures between 80 and 110 km measured by the Colorado State University narrow-band sodium (Na) lidar located at Fort Collins, Colorado (41 N, 255E) as ground truth of the SABER/TIMED nearly simultaneous ( +/-10 minutes) and common volume (within +/-1 degree in latitude, +/-2 degrees in longitude) observations. For each altitude in 80-110 km interval we estimate an 'optimal" value of k(CO2-O) needed to minimize the discrepancy between the simulated 15 micron CO2 radiance and that measured by the SABER/TIMED instrument. The k(CO2-O) obtained in this way varies in altitude from 3.5 x 10(exp -12)cu cm/s at 80 km to 5.2 x 10(exp -12)cu cm/s for altitudes above 95 km. We discuss this variation of the rate constant and its impact on temperature retrievals from 15 pm radiance measurements and on the energy budget of MLT.

Feofilov, A.↗
NASA NTRS2010

Altitude Variation of the CO2 (V2)-O Quenching Rate Coefficient in Mesosphere and Lower Thermosphere

Among the processes governing the energy balance in the mesosphere and lower thermosphere (mlt), the quenching of CO2(N2) vibrational levels by collisions with oxygen atoms plays an important role. However, the k(CO2-O) values measured in the lab and retrieved from atmospheric measurements vary from 1.5 x 10(exp -12) cubic centimeters per second through 9.0 x 10(exp -12) cubic centimeters per second that requires further studying. In this work we used synergistic data from a ground based lidar and a satellite infrared radiometer to estimate K(CO2-O). We used the night- and daytime temperatures between 80 and 110 km measured by the colorado state university narrow-band sodium (Na) lidar located at fort collins, colorado (41N, 255E) as ground truth of the saber/timed nearly simultaneous (plus or minus 10 minutes) and common volume (within plus or minus 1 degree in latitude, plus or minus 2 degrees in longitude) observations. For each altitude in 80-110 km interval we estimate an "optimal" value of K(CO2-O) needed to minimize the discrepancy between the simulated 15 mm CO2 radiance and that measured by the saber/timed instrument. The K(CO2-O) obtained in this way varies in altitude from 3.5 x 10(exp -12) cubic centimeters per second at 80 km to 5.2 x 10(exp -12) cubic centimeters pers second for altitudes above 95 km. We discuss this variation of the rate constant and its impact on temperature retrievals from 15 mm radiance measurements and on the energy budget of mlt.

Feofilovi, Artem↗
NASA NTRS2011

Space-Borne Observations of Intense Gamma-Ray Flashes (TGFs) Above Thunderstorms

Intense millisecond flashes of MeV photons have been observed with space-borne detectors. These terrestrial gamma-ray flashes (TGFs) were discovered with the Burst and Transient Source Experiment (BATSE) aboard the Compton Gamma- Ray Observatory (CGRO) in the early 1990s. They are now being observed with several other instruments, including the Gamma-ray Burst Monitor (GBM) detectors on the Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope. Although Fermi-GBM was designed and optimized for the observation of cosmic gamma-ray bursts (GRBs), it has unprecedented capabilities for these TGF observations. On several occasions, intense beams of high-energy electrons and positrons have been observed at the geomagnetic conjugate points of TGFs.

Fishman, Gerald J.↗
NASA NTRSDate not supplied

Developing A Continuous Ozone Record Through the SAGE and Aura Missions With NASA Reanalysis Products

During the last quarter of the 20th century, the Stratospheric Aerosol and Gas Experiment (SAGE) missions were crucial in monitoring the loss and subsequent recovery of the stratospheric ozone layer. Due to the employed solar occultation and self-calibration method, the SAGE monitors have produced stable data throughout the lifetime of each instrument. However, over ten years passed between the end of the SAGE II and SAGE III/M3M missions in 2005 and the launch of SAGE III/ISS instrument in 2017, leaving a gap in the data that must be bridged in order to assess trends in the ozone record. The Modern-Era Retrospective analysis for Research and Applications, version 2 (MERRA-2) reanalysis product, with output available starting in 1980, is an attractive candidate for trend analysis due to the statistically optimized combination of multiple observing systems and the regular temporal and spatial coverage. However, changes in the assimilated observation systems can introduce discontinuities within the MERRA-2 ozone record, such as in 2004 when the MERRA-2 system shifted from assimilating ozone retrievals collected by SBUV instruments to those collected by instruments onboard the Aura satellite. In this study, we explore using the SAGE II record as a transfer function to develop a stable reanalysis data product, suitable for trend analysis, from the start of the SAGE II record in 1984 through the present. We follow the procedure outlined by Wargan et al. (2018) to address discontinuities in the MERRA-2 ozone dataset at the 2004 transition and during the Aura record. SAGE II ozone profiles are used to correct discontinuities in upper stratospheric ozone associated with changes in the MERRA-2 meteorological observing system in 1998 and 1995. We will then assess the relative performance of the data from different SAGE sensors using the resulting bias-corrected MERRA-2 ozone fields.

Pamela Wales↗
NASA NTRS2010

Optimization of Noise Performance of Low-Back Ground Detector Arrays

The performance of the 2k x 2k Teledyne H2RG detectors is key to the success of the JWST mission. For broadband imaging, where background limited sensitivity is quickly reached, the key parameter is the quantum efficiency of the detectors, which is, in general, very good. For near infrared spectroscopy and narrow band imaging, we cannot generally reach the back-round limit, so instrument sensitivity is directly dependent on the read noise of the detector. We have initiated a program to analyze the noise characteristics of the H2RG detectors, studying the correlations among the detector outputs and with the reference output, as well as the temporal correlations in a given detector section. Lasing the measured characteristics of the noise correlations, we can determine the optimal coefficients for the removal of correlated noise as a function of frequency. By using available reference sources and adding more frequent references, we have been able to reduce the noise by a factor of two. We find that the detectors have significantly lower noise that observed in prior tests, and can offer significant improvements in the performance of the JWST instruments. We will present the analysis and mitigation techniques, discuss prospects for further improvements with existing detectors, and describe considerations for improvements in next-generation detectors.

Rauscher, Bernard J.↗
NASA NTRS1990

Mission optimization of the Space Infrared Telescope Facility

The Space Infrared Telescope Facility (SIRTF) mission based on a cryogenically cooled telescope is described. The SIRTF makes it possible to perform background limited measurements with three focal plane instruments in the wavelength range 2-700 microns over the entire celestial sphere for at least five years. A telescope performance limited by the natural astrophysical background between 2 to 300 microns is achieved by using a superfluid helium cryogenic system for maintaining the forebaffle temperature below 8 K. The attitude control system based on Extreme Ultra-Violet Explorer reaction wheels meets the large and small angle slew requirements and provides 0.15 arc sec pointing stability. The present HEO baseline configuration has a mass of 4370 kg. The future Titan IV/Centaur launch capability to 100,000 km for a SIRTF-sized payload is at least 5770 kg.

Brooks, Walter F.↗
NASA NTRS2011

Latest Progress on the Gamma-Ray Imager/Polarimeter for Solar Flares (GRIPS)

We present the latest progress on building the balloon-borne Gamma-Ray Imager/Polarimeter for Solar flares (GRIPS) instrument, including testing and calibration of the detectors and development of the imaging and aspect systems. A continental-US test flight is slated for fall 2012. GRIPS will provide a near-optimal combination of high-resolution imaging, spectroscopy, and polarimetry of solar-flare gamma-ray/hard X-ray emissions from approx.20. keV to > approx.10 MeV. The spectrometer/polarimeter consists of sixteen 3D position-sensitive germanium detectors (3D-GeDs), where each energy deposition is individually recorded with an energy resolution of a few keV FWHM and a spatial resolution to within <0.1 cu mm. Imaging is accomplished by a single multi-pitch rotating modulator (MPRM), a 2.5-cm thick tungsten-alloy grid with pitches that range quasi-continuously from 1 to 13 mm. With the MPRM situated 8 meters from the spectrometer, this instrument will provide excellent image quality and unparalleled angular resolution at gamma-ray energies (12.5 arcsec FWHM), sufficient to separate the 2.2 MeV footpoint sources for almost all flares. Polarimetry is accomplished by analyzing the anisotropy of reconstructed Compton scattering in the 3D-GeDs (i.e. as an active scatterer), with an estimated minimum detectable polarization of a few percent at 150-650 keV in an X-class flare. GRIPS will address questions relevant to particle acceleration and energy release that ha-.e been raised by recent solar flare observations, such as: What causes the spatial separation between energetic electron producing hard X-rays and energetic ions producing gamma-ray lines? How anisotropic are the accelerated electrons, and why do relativistic electron dominate in the corona? How does the composition of accelerated and ambient material vary with space and time, and why?

Shih, Albert Y.↗
NASA NTRS2013

MESSENGER at Mercury: Early Orbital Operations

The MErcury Surface, Space ENvironment, GEochemistry, and Ranging (MESSENGER) spacecraft, launched in August 2004 under NASA's Discovery Program, was inserted into orbit about the planet Mercury in March 2011. MESSENGER's three flybys of Mercury in 2008-2009 marked the first spacecraft visits to the innermost planet since the Mariner 10 flybys in 1974-1975. The unprecedented orbital operations are yielding new insights into the nature and evolution of Mercury. The scientific questions that frame the MESSENGER mission led to the mission measurement objectives to be achieved by the seven payload instruments and the radio science experiment. Interweaving the full set of required orbital observations in a manner that maximizes the opportunity to satisfy all mission objectives and yet meet stringent spacecraft pointing and thermal constraints was a complex optimization problem that was solved with a software tool that simulates science observations and tracks progress toward meeting each objective. The final orbital observation plan, the outcome of that optimization process, meets all mission objectives. MESSENGER's Mercury Dual Imaging System is acquiring a global monochromatic image mosaic at better than 90% coverage and at least 250 m average resolution, a global color image mosaic at better than 90% coverage and at least 1 km average resolution, and global stereo imaging at better than 80% coverage and at least 250 m average resolution. Higher-resolution images are also being acquired of targeted areas. The elemental remote sensing instruments, including the Gamma-Ray and Neutron Spectrometer and the X-Ray Spectrometer, are being operated nearly continuously and will establish the average surface abundances of most major elements. The Visible and Infrared Spectrograph channel of MESSENGER's Mercury Atmospheric and Surface Composition Spectrometer is acquiring a global map of spectral reflectance from 300 to 1450 nm wavelength at a range of incidence and emission angles. Targeted areas have been selected for spectral coverage into the ultraviolet with the Ultraviolet and Visible Spectrometer (UVVS). MESSENGER's Mercury Laser Altimeter is acquiring topographic profiles when the slant range to Mercury's surface is less than 1800 km, encompassing latitudes from 20 deg. S to the north pole. Topography over the remainder of the southern hemisphere will be derived from stereo imaging, radio occultations, and limb profiles. MESSENGER's radio science experiment is determining Mercury's gravity field from Doppler signals acquired during frequent downlinks. MESSENGER's Magnetometer is measuring the vector magnetic field both within Mercury's magnetosphere and in Mercury's solar wind environment at an instrument sampling rate of up to 20 samples/s. The UVVS is determining the three-dimensional, time-dependent distribution of Mercury's exospheric neutral and ionic species via their emission lines. During each spacecraft orbit, the Energetic Particle Spectrometer measures energetic electrons and ions, and the Fast Imaging Plasma Spectrometer measures the energies and mass per charge of thermal plasma components, both within Mercury's magnetosphere and in Mercury's solar-wind environment. The primary mission observation sequence will continue for one Earth year, until March 2012. An extended mission, currently under discussion with NASA, would add a second year of orbital observations targeting a set of focused follow-on questions that build on observations to date and take advantage of the more active Sun expected during 2012-2013. MESSENGER's total primary mission cost, projected at $446 M in real-year dollars, is comparable to that of Mariner 10 after adjustment for inflation.

mercury↗
NASA NTRS2012

MESSENGER at Mercury: Early Orbital Operations

The MErcury Surface, Space ENvironment, GEochemistry, and Ranging (MESSENGER) spacecraft, launched in August 2004 under NASA's Discovery Program, was inserted into orbit about the planet Mercury in March 2011. MESSENGER's three flybys of Mercury in 2008-2009 marked the first spacecraft visits to the innermost planet since the Mariner 10 flybys in 1974-1975. The unprecedented orbital operations are yielding new insights into the nature and evolution of Mercury. The scientific questions that frame the MESSENGER mission led to the mission measurement objectives to be achieved by the seven payload instruments and the radio science experiment. Interweaving the full set of required orbital observations in a manner that maximizes the opportunity to satisfy all mission objectives and yet meet stringent spacecraft pointing and thermal constraints was a complex optimization problem that was solved with a software tool that simulates science observations and tracks progress toward meeting each objective. The final orbital observation plan, the outcome of that optimization process, meets all mission objectives. MESSENGER's Mercury Dual Imaging System is acquiring a global monochromatic image mosaic at better than 90%coverage and at least 250 m average resolution, a global color image mosaic at better than 90%coverage and at least 1 km average resolution, and global stereo imaging at better than 80%coverage and at least 250 m average resolution. Higher-resolution images are also being acquired of targeted areas. The elemental remote sensing instruments, including the Gamma-Ray and Neutron Spectrometer and the X-Ray Spectrometer, are being operated nearly continuously and will establish the average surface abundances of most major elements. The Visible and Infrared Spectrograph channel of MESSENGER's Mercury Atmospheric and Surface Composition Spectrometer is acquiring a global map of spectral reflectance from 300 to 1450 nm wavelength at a range of incidence and emission angles. Targeted areas have been selected for spectral coverage into the ultraviolet with the Ultraviolet and Visible Spectrometer (UVVS). MESSENGER's Mercury Laser Altimeter is acquiring topographic profiles when the slant range to Mercury's surface is less than 1800 km, encompassing latitudes from 201S to the north pole. Topography over the remainder of the southern hemisphere will be derived from stereo imaging, radio occultations, and limb profiles. MESSENGER's radio science experiment is determining Mercury's gravity field from Doppler signals acquired during frequent downlinks. MESSENGER's Magnetometer is measuring the vector magnetic field both within Mercury's magnetosphere and in Mercury's solar wind environment at an instrument sampling rate of up to 20 samples/s. The UVVS is determining the three-dimensional, time-dependent distribution of Mercury's exospheric neutral and ionic species via their emission lines. During each spacecraft orbit, the Energetic Particle Spectrometer measures energetic electrons and ions, and the Fast Imaging Plasma Spectrometer measures the energies and mass per charge of thermal plasma components, both within Mercury's magnetosphere and in Mercury's solar-wind environment. The primary mission observation sequence will continue for one Earth year, until March 2012. An extended mission, currently under discussion with NASA, would add a second year of orbital observations targeting a set of focused follow-on questions that build on observations to date and take advantage of the more active Sun expected during 2012-2013. MESSENGER's total primary mission cost, projected at $446 M in real-year dollars, is comparable to that of Mariner 10 after adjustment for inflation.

Planetary Science↗
NASA NTRS2017

Hyperspectral Radiative Transfer Modeling to Explore the Combined Retrieval of Biophysical Parameters and Canopy Fluorescence from FLEX - Sentinel-3 Tandem Mission Multi-Sensor Data

The FLuorescence EXplorer (FLEX) satellite mission, selected as ESA's 8th Earth Explorer, has been designed forthe measurement of sun-induced fluorescence (F) spectra emitted by plants. This will be accomplished through amulti-sensor approach by placing it in a common orbit in tandem with the Sentinel-3 (S3) mission, which willhave two optical sensors on board, OLCI (Ocean and Land Colour Instrument) and SLSTR (Sea and Land SurfaceTemperature Radiometer) to complement FLEX. These S3 instruments will be used in combination with theimaging spectrometers on board FLEX to provide data useful for atmospheric correction of FLEX data. However,a fully synergetic approach, i.e. by exploiting the spectral and directional information from all tandem missioninstruments together, is an attractive alternative which is explored in this paper. By employing all combined topof-atmosphere (TOA) spectral radiance data, one can (i) characterize the relevant optical properties of the atmosphere,(ii) retrieve biophysical canopy properties including the associated reflectance anisotropy, and (iii)retrieve a more accurate and consistent canopy F.Regarding retrieval methods, Fraunhofer Line Depth (FLD) and Spectral Fitting (SF) are well-known techniquesapplied to hyperspectral data. Both methods depend on a high spectral resolution and assume aLambertian (isotropic) canopy reflectance. However, most vegetation canopies are non-Lambertian. This impliesthat, in particular when ignoring the anisotropic surface reflection, substantial retrieval errors can occur due tothe interaction between atmospheric absorption bands and surface reflectance anisotropy. In this paper, a novelmethod based on spectral radiative transfer (RT) modeling is proposed, in which coupled RT models are used tosimulate TOA radiance spectra. These are then matched with ‘measured' spectra in order to retrieve surfacefluorescence, along with a suite of biophysical parameters, by model inversion through optimization. By applyingcoupled RT models of the soil-leaf-canopy and the surface-atmosphere systems, TOA radiance spectra canbe simulated for all optical sensors of this tandem mission. In this way, complex effects due to surface reflectanceanisotropy and the spectral sampling by the various instruments, which are difficult to compensate for in the endproducts, are properly taken into account by their incorporation in the forward modeling. Next, by model inversionof TOA radiance data via optimization, the most accurate F retrievals can be achieved in a consistentmanner, along with important canopy level biophysical parameters that may help interpret the F spectrum, suchas chlorophyll content and leaf area index (LAI). The potential of this approach has been explored in a numericalexperiment, and the results are presented in this paper. We find that, with the assumed well-characterized andplausible FLEX/S3 instrument performances, the simultaneous retrieval of biophysical canopy parameters and Fspectra would be possible with a remarkable accuracy, provided the correct atmospheric characterization isavailable.

Verhoef, Wouter↗
NASA NTRS2011

Thermal Structure and Dynamics of Saturn's Northern Springtime Disturbance

This article combined several infrared datasets to study the vertical properties of Saturn's northern springtime storm. Spectroscopic observations of Saturn's northern hemisphere at 0.5 and 2.5 / cm spectral resolution were provided by the Cassini Composite Infrared Spectrometer (CIRS, 17). These were supplemented with narrow-band filtered imaging from the ESO Very Large Telescope VISIR instrument (16) to provide a global spatial context for the Cassini spectroscopy. Finally, nightside imaging from the Cassini Visual and Infrared Mapping Spectrometer (VIMS, 22) provided a glimpse of the undulating cloud activity in the eastern branch of the disturbance. Each of these datasets, and the methods used to reduce and analyse them, will be described in detail below. Spatial maps of atmospheric temperatures, aerosol opacity and gaseous distributions are derived from infrared spectroscopy using a suite of radiative transfer and optimal estimation retrieval tools developed at the University of Oxford, known collectively as Nemesis (23). Synthetic spectra created from a reference atmospheric model for Saturn and appropriate sources of spectroscopic line data (6, 24) are convolved with the instrument function for each dataset. Atmospheric properties are then iteratively adjusted until the measurements are accurately reproduced with physically-realistic temperatures, compositions and cloud opacities.

Fletcher, Leigh N.↗
NASA NTRS2010

Instrument for Measuring Thermal Conductivity of Materials at Low Temperatures

With the advance of polymer and other non-metallic material sciences, whole new series of polymeric materials and composites are being created. These materials are being optimized for many different applications including cryogenic and low-temperature industrial processes. Engineers need these data to perform detailed system designs and enable new design possibilities for improved control, reliability, and efficiency in specific applications. One main area of interest is cryogenic structural elements and fluid handling components and other parts, films, and coatings for low-temperature application. An important thermal property of these new materials is the apparent thermal conductivity (k-value).

Fesmire, James↗
NASA NTRS1972

A graphite crystal polarimeter for stellar X-ray astronomy.

The first crystal X-ray polarimeter to be used for X-ray astronomy is described. Polarization is measured by modulation of the X rays diffracted at an average 45 deg glancing angle from large, curved graphite crystal panels as these rotate about an axis parallel to the incident X-ray flux. Arrangement of the crystal panels, the design of the detector, and the signal-processing circuitry were optimized to minimize systematic effects produced by off-axis pointing of the rocket and cosmic ray induced events. The in-flight performance of the instrument in relation to the observed background signal is discussed.

Weisskopf, M. C.↗