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We propose an optical frequency standard based on a femtosecond laser, in which the shift of the frequency comb is controlled using a Michelson interferometer. (optical frequency standards)
In a series of discharges on the DIII-D tokamak, fast vertical plasma jogs are used to induce current perturbations in the steep gradient region of the H-mode edge. These current perturbations directly influence the edge q profile, decoupling the resonant location and instability drive of pedestal-localized microtearing modes (MTMs.) By exploiting this effect, we develop and apply a new experimental technique to track the dynamical frequency evolution of MTMs in the pedestal region, providing a compelling validation of the MTM model. The frequency of potential MTMs is calculated as the Doppler-shifted electron diamagnetic frequency at rational q=m/n surfaces, showing remarkable agreement with chirped frequency behavior of n=3, 4 and 5 modes detected with fast magnetics. Data is collected throughout multiple ELM cycles in order to build robust statistics describing the time-dependent frequency evolution of MTMs, which can be explained by examining the recovery of pedestal gradients after an ELM event. MTMs have a dominant transport contribution in the electron thermal channel, so the presented results indicate that reduced models of pedestal transport must be electromagnetic in nature and constructed with accurate calculations of MTM stability; inclusion of this physics is essential for accurate predictions of the electron temperature pedestal profile. Supporting measurements of mode saturation, propagation direction and transport fingerprints are made to support the dynamic frequency determination, unambiguously and experimentally identifying MTMs in the pedestal region of DIII-D.
Local chlorophyll (Chl) vibrations play an essential role in biological photosynthesis by facilitating rapid energy transfer between pigments. In research studies, they also provide a useful spectroscopic probe of the local protein environment that surrounds each pigment. However, measuring the complete vibrational absorption spectrum of a protein-bound Chl molecule is much more difficult than, for example, Chl in neat solvent due to overlap with protein vibrations that typically drown out Chl vibrational features. Resonance Raman and fluorescence spectroscopies provide a way around this problem for Franck–Condon active vibrations, but these often rely on cryogenic measurement conditions and fail to capture vibrational signatures from, e.g., ester-group vibrations that lack coupling to a convenient electronic transition. In the present contribution, we use 13 C-enrichment of the protein backbone to shift protein background signals to lower frequency, providing a largely clean spectral window in which to study local Chl a C═O stretch modes. A room-temperature absorption spectrum for Chl a in the water-soluble chlorophyll protein (WSCP) of Lepidium virginicum is thus extracted as a difference between protein-plus-pigment and protein-only vibrational spectra. Excellent agreement in the molecular fingerprint region with the vibrational spectrum of Chl a in organic solvents confirms that the resulting spectrum represents the response of the protein-bound Chl a molecule. Furthermore, the ester group resonance is observed to shift in response to the S53P mutation that eliminates a 17 3 ester group hydrogen bond from the protein environment. Finally, we analyze these experimental results using MD-based electrostatic analysis, finding that electric-field mapping at the C atom of the ester group provides a satisfactory explanation for the observed frequency shifts between organic solvent and protein environment. MD analysis further suggests that a red-shifted ester peak observed experimentally for the S53P mutant results from solvation of the 17 3 Chl ester group due increase water penetration into the Chl-binding pocket relative to wild-type WSCP. Here, we anticipate that these results will prove useful both for benchmarking future simulation work and as a reference for interpreting Chl vibrational spectra as a probe of pigment–protein interactions.
Low-energy alternatives to General Relativity (GR) generically modify the phase of gravitational waves (GWs) during their propagation. As detector sensitivities increase, it becomes key to understand how these modifications affect the GW higher modes and to disentangle possible degeneracies with astrophysical phenomena. We apply a general formalism — the WKB approach — for solving analytically wave propagation in the spatial domain with a modified dispersion relation (MDR). We compare this WKB approach to applying a stationary phase approximation (SPA) in the temporal domain with time delays associated to the group or particle velocity. To this end, we extend the SPA to generic signals with higher modes, keeping careful track of reference phases and arrival times. We find that the WKB approach coincides with the SPA using the group velocity, in agreement with the principles of wave propagation. We then explore the degeneracies between a GW propagation with an MDR and a strongly-lensed GW in GR, since the latter can introduce a frequency-independent phase shift which is not degenerate with source parameters in the presence of higher modes. We find that for a particular MDR there is an exact degeneracy for wave propagation, unlike with the SPA for particle propagation. For the other cases, we search for the values of the MDR parameters that minimize the χ 2 and conclude that strongly-lensed GR GWs could be misinterpreted as GWs in modified gravity. As a result, future MDR constraints with higher mode GWs should include the possibility of frequency-independent phase shifts, allowing for the identification of modified gravity and strong lensing distortions at the same time.
Based on density functional theory and density functional perturbation theory calculations, we systematically investigate the vibration responses of h-BN sheet to charge doping and external strains. It is found that under hole doping, the phonon frequencies of the ZO and TO branches at different wave vector q shift linearly with different slopes. Under electron doping, although the phonon frequencies shift irregularly, the shifting values are different at different phonon wave vectors. Interestingly, we find that external strain can restrain the irregular vibration responses of h-BN sheet to electron doping. The critical factor is revealed to be the relative position of the nearly free electron and boron p{sub z} states of h-BN sheet. Under external strains, the vibration responses of h-BN sheet are also found to be highly dependent on the phonon branches. Different vibration modes at different q points are revealed to be responsible for the vibration responses of h-BN sheet to charge doping and external strain. Our results point out a new way to detect the doping or strain status of h-BN sheet by measuring the vibration frequencies at different wave vector.
In current research work, Co{sub 1-x}Ni{sub x/2}Sr{sub x/2}Fe{sub 2}O{sub 4} (x = 0–1 in a step of 0.2) ferrite nanoparticles were synthesized by a sol-gel method. According to the evolution in the subspectral areas obtained from Mössbauer spectroscopy, it was found that the relaxing iron belongs mostly to the site B, since the Mössbauer fraction of site A does not vary appreciably. With an increase in Ni-Sr substitution contents in cobalt ferrite, the coercivity and saturation of magnetization decrease. Variation of reflection loss versus frequency in microwave X-band demonstrates that the reflection peak shifts to lower frequency by adding substituted cations and the synthesized nanoparticles can be considered for application in electromagnetic wave absorber technology.
Graphical abstract: X-ray diffraction indicates that the films are polycrystalline with the pure perovskite phase. Ten Raman active modes and one silicon substrate mode can be observed. The A{sub 1} {sub g}[Bi] at about 59 cm{sup −1} is unchanged whereas the B{sub 1} {sub g} and A{sub 1} {sub g}[Ti] phonon modes shift towards higher frequencies. Photoluminescence shows that the intensities of the two peaks increase with Nd concentration except the Bi{sub 3}NdTi{sub 3}O{sub 12} film, due to the smallest grain size and oxygen vacancy defects. Good optical functions of the BNT films are achieved due to the SE suggesting potential applications in ferroelectric-based optoelectronic devices. - Abstract: Bi{sub 4−x}Nd{sub x}Ti{sub 3}O{sub 12} (BNT) films with different Nd contents (from 0 to 1 with 0.25 intervals) are prepared by the sol–gel process. The Nd substitution effects on the preferred orientation, surface morphology, phonon modes, emission bands, andelectronic band structures of the BNT films are investigated by microscopy, Raman scattering, photoluminescence, and spectroscopic ellipsometry (SE) at room temperature. X-ray diffraction indicates that the films are polycrystalline with the pure perovskite phase. Ten Raman active modes and one silicon substrate mode can be observed. The A{sub 1} {sub g}[Bi] at about 59 cm{sup −1} is unchanged whereas the B{sub 1} {sub g} and A{sub 1} {sub g}[Ti] phonon modes shift towards higher frequencies. Photoluminescence shows that the intensities of the two peaks increase with Nd concentration except the Bi{sub 3}NdTi{sub 3}O{sub 12} film, due to the smallest grain size and oxygen vacancy defects. Good optical functions of the BNT films are achieved due to the SE suggesting potential applications in ferroelectric-based optoelectronic devices.
Experimental and theoretical studies of HXeI and HXeH molecules in Ar, Kr, and Xe matrices are presented. HXeI exhibits the H–Xe stretching bands at 1238.0 and 1239.0 cm{sup −1} in Ar and Kr matrices, respectively, that are blue-shifted from the HXeI band observed in a Xe matrix (1193 cm{sup −1}) by 45 and 46 cm{sup −1}. These shifts are larger than those observed previously for HXeCl (27 and 16 cm{sup −1}) and HXeBr (37 and 23 cm{sup −1}); thus, the matrix effect is stronger for less stable molecules. The results for HXeI are qualitatively different from all previous results on noble-gas hydrides with respect to the frequency order between Ar and Kr matrices. For previously studied HXeCl, HXeBr, and HXeCCH, the H–Xe stretching frequency is reliably (by >10 cm{sup −1}) higher in an Ar matrix than in a Kr matrix. In contrast, the H–Xe stretching frequency of HXeI in an Ar matrix is slightly lower than that in a Kr matrix. HXeH absorbs in Ar and Kr matrices at 1203.2 and 1192.1 cm{sup −1} (the stronger band for a Kr matrix), respectively. These bands are blue-shifted from the stronger band of HXeH in a Xe matrix (1166 cm{sup −1}) by 37 and 26 cm{sup −1}, and this frequency order is the same as observed for HXeCl, HXeBr, and HXeCCH but different from HXeI. The present hybrid quantum-classical simulations successfully describe the main experimental findings. For HXeI in the 〈110〉 (double substitution) site, the order of the H–Xe stretching frequencies (ν(Xe) < ν(Ar) < ν(Kr)) is in accord with the experimental observations, and also the frequency shifts in Ar and Kr matrices from a Xe matrix are well predicted (30 and 34 cm{sup −1}). Both in the theory and experiment, the order of the H–Xe stretching frequencies differs from the case of HXeCl, which suggests the adequate theoretical description of the matrix effect. For HXeH in the 〈100〉 (single substitution) site, the order of the frequencies is ν(Xe) < ν(Kr) < ν(Ar), which also agrees with the experiments. The calculated frequency shifts for HXeH in Ar and Kr matrices with respect to a Xe matrix (36 and 23 cm{sup −1}) are in a good agreement with the experiments. The present calculations predict an increase of the H–Xe stretching frequencies in the noble-gas matrices with respect to vacuum.
A dielectric loaded rectangular grating for Smith-Purcell devices is proposed in this paper. Regarding the electron beam as a moving plasma dielectric, a three dimensional (3D) linear theory of beam-wave interaction is developed. The first and second order growth rates are calculated, which are obtained by expanding hot dispersion equation at synchronous point. The results show that the cutoff frequency is affected by grating width. The dispersion curve becomes flatter and shifts towards lower frequency by loading dielectric in grooves. The simulation results, which are obtained by a 3D particle-in-cell code, are in good agreement with theoretical calculations. Compared the first and second order growth rate, it shows that the discrepancy is large when beam parameters are selected with high values. In this case, it is necessary to apply the second order growth rate, which can accurately describe the process of beam-wave interaction.
We propose a room temperature, all electrical driving and detecting, very sensitive thermometer structure using a microelectromechanical (MEMS) resonator for bolometer applications. We have fabricated a GaAs doubly clamped MEMS beam resonator whose oscillation can be excited and detected by the piezoelectric effect. When a heating power is applied to a NiCr film deposited on the MEMS beam surface, internal thermal stress is generated in the beam, leading to a reduction in the resonance frequency. The present device detects the shift in the resonance frequency caused by heating and works as a very sensitive thermometer. When the resonator was driven by a voltage slightly below the threshold for the nonlinear, hysteretic oscillation, the thermometer showed a voltage responsivity of about 3300 V/W, while keeping a low noise spectral density of about 60 nV/Hz{sup 1/2}, demonstrating a noise equivalent power of <20 pW/Hz{sup 1/2} even at room temperature. The observed effect can be used for realizing high-sensitivity terahertz bolometers for room-temperature operation.
An analytical expression of the low-frequency quadrupole impedance for undulators and wigglers is derived and benchmarked against beam-based impedance measurements done at the 3GeV NSLS-II storage ring. The adopted theoretical model, valid for an arbitrary number of electromagnetic layers with parallel geometry, allows to calculate the quadrupole impedance for arbitrary values of the magnetic permeability $μ_r$. In the comparison of the analytical results with the measurements for variable magnet gaps, two limit cases of the permeability have been studied: the case of perfect magnets ($μ_r$ → $\infty$), and the case in which the magnets are fully saturated ($μ_r$ = 1).
The various embodiments presented herein relate to extraordinary electromagnetic transmission (EEMT) to enable multiple inefficient (un-matched) but coupled radiators and/or apertures to radiate and/or pass electromagnetic waves efficiently. EEMT can be utilized such that signal transmission from a plurality of antennas and/or apertures occurs at a transmission frequency different to transmission frequencies of the individual antennas and/or aperture elements. The plurality of antennas/apertures can comprise first antenna/aperture having a first radiating area and material(s) and second antenna/aperture having a second radiating area and material(s), whereby the first radiating/aperture area and second radiating/aperture area can be co-located in a periodic compound unit cell. Owing to mutual coupling between the respective antennas/apertures in their arrayed configuration, the transmission frequency of the array can be shifted from the transmission frequencies of the individual elements. EEMT can be utilized for an array of evanescent of inefficient radiators connected to a transmission line(s).
In this paper, a dielectric-loaded grating for Smith-Purcell device is proposed. The three-dimensional (3D) analytical theory for hot dispersion relation is obtained by using field matched method, which is solved by numerical simulations. The first and second order growth rates for the proposal model are analyzed, which is obtained by expanding hot dispersion equation at the operating point. The results show that the dispersion can be effectively weakened by introducing dielectric-loaded grating, in which the cutoff frequency is affected by the grating thickness. The dispersion curve becomes flatter and shifts towards lower frequency at the optimum grating parameters. The 3D particle-in-cell (PIC) simulation is also performed and the results are in good agreement with theoretical calculations. Comparing the first order growth rate with the second one, it reveals that the discrepancy is small when electron beam parameters are selected with small values. Otherwise, the discrepancy is large and cannot be ignored. To accurately describe the process of beam-wave interaction, the second order growth rate is necessary to apply.
We propose here a novel approach to probe new fundamental interactions using isotope shift spectroscopy in atomic clock transitions. As a concrete toy example we focus on the Higgs boson couplings to the building blocks of matter: the electron and the up and down quarks. We show that the attractive Higgs force between nuclei and their bound electrons, which is poorly constrained, might induce effects that are larger than the current experimental sensitivities. More generically, we discuss how new interactions between the electron and the neutrons, mediated via light new degrees of freedom, may lead to measurable nonlinearities in a King plot comparison between isotope shifts of two different transitions. Given state-of-the-art accuracy in frequency comparison, isotope shifts have the potential to be measured with sub-Hz accuracy, thus potentially enabling the improvement of current limits on new fundamental interactions. A candidate atomic system for this measurement requires two different clock transitions and four zero nuclear spin isotopes. We identify several systems that satisfy this requirement and also briefly discuss existing measurements. We consider the size of the effect related to the Higgs force and the requirements for it to produce an observable signal.
A combination of spectroscopy and density functional theory (DFT) calculations has been used to evaluate the pH effect at the Cu{sub Z} site in Pseudomonas nautica (Pn) nitrous oxide reductase (N{sub 2}OR) and Achromobacter cycloclastes (Ac) N{sub 2}OR and its relevance to catalysis. Absorption, magnetic circular dichroism, and electron paramagnetic resonance with sulfur K-edge X-ray absorption spectra of the enzymes at high and low pH show minor changes. However, resonance Raman (rR) spectroscopy of PnN{sub 2}OR at high pH shows that the 415 cm{sup -1} Cu-S vibration (observed at low pH) shifts to higher frequency, loses intensity, and obtains a 9 cm{sup -1} {sup 18}O shift, implying significant Cu-O character, demonstrating the presence of a OH{sup -} ligand at the Cu{sub I}Cu{sub IV} edge. From DFT calculations, protonation of either the OH{sup -} to H{sub 2}O or the {mu}{sub 4}-S{sup 2-} to {mu}{sub 4}-SH{sup -} would produce large spectral changes which are not observed. Alternatively, DFT calculations including a lysine residue at an H-bonding distance from the Cu{sub I}Cu{sub IV} edge ligand show that the position of the OH{sup -} ligand depends on the protonation state of the lysine. This would change the coupling of the Cu-(OH) stretch with the Cu-S stretch, as observed in the rR spectrum. Thus, the observed pH effect (pK{sub a} {approx} 9.2) likely reflects protonation equilibrium of the lysine residue, which would both raise E{sup o} and provide a proton for lowering the barrier for the N-O cleavage and for reduction of the [Cu{sub 4}S(im){sub 7}OH]{sup 2+} to the fully reduced 4Cu{sup I} active form for turnover.
A well designed frequency tunable phase shifter using patterned Py with different thickness has been demonstrated. Phase shifter is implemented with a slow wave coplanar wave guide (CPW)transmission line, where the signal line has alternate short narrow and wide sections. Py is patterned on the top of narrow section for high inductance density, and inter-digital capacitor is implemented in wide section for high capacitance density. Compared with phase shifter using regular CPW, the dimension of the developed phase shifter has been reduced from 14.86 mm to4.70 mm at 2 GHz. Phase shifter based on 100 nm and 200 nm thick patterned Py with the same dimensions (14lm10lm) are implemented and investigated comprehensively. FMR frequency of 3.2 GHz and 3.6 GHz without any external magnetic field has been achieved for100 nm and 200 nm thick Py film, respectively. Thicker Py has increased inductance density from 1067.2 nH/m to 1193.2 nH/m while the center frequency of the phase shifter has been shifted to 1.80 GHz. Frequency tunability of the phase shifter has been also demonstrated withDC current. The phase shifter can provide 90phase shift continuously from 2 GHz to 1.80 GHz with DC current from 0 mA to 150 mA. As a result, the design concept has great potential in design arbitrary tunable RF components such as filters and couplers.
While the basic principles of conventional solar cells are well understood, little attention has gone towards maximizing the efficiency of photovoltaic devices based on shift currents. Furthermore, by analysing effective models, here we outline simple design principles for the optimization of shift currents for frequencies near the band gap. This method allows us to express the band edge shift current in terms of a few model parameters and to show it depends explicitly on wavefunctions in addition to standard band structure. We use our approach to identify two classes of shift current photovoltaics, ferroelectric polymer films and single-layer orthorhombic monochalcogenides such as GeS, which display the largest band edge responsivities reported so far. Moreover, exploring the parameter space of the tight-binding models that describe them we find photoresponsivities that can exceed 100 mA W -1 . Our results illustrate the great potential of shift current photovoltaics to compete with conventional solar cells.
Chemical reactions are usually observed either by relaxation of a bulk sample after applying a sudden external perturbation, or by intrinsic fluctuations of a few molecules. Here we show that the two ideas can be combined to measure protein folding kinetics, either by periodic thermal modulation, or by creating artificial thermal noise that greatly exceeds natural thermal fluctuations. We study the folding reaction of the enzyme phosphoglycerate kinase driven by periodic temperature waveforms. As the temperature waveform unfolds and refolds the protein, its fluorescence color changes due to FRET (Förster resonant Energy Transfer) of two donor/acceptor fluorophores labeling the protein. We adapt a simple model of periodically driven kinetics that nicely fits the data at all temperatures and driving frequencies: The phase shifts of the periodic donor and acceptor fluorescence signals as a function of driving frequency reveal reaction rates. We also drive the reaction with stochastic temperature waveforms that produce thermal fluctuations much greater than natural fluctuations in the bulk. Such artificial thermal noise allows the recovery of weak underlying signals due to protein folding kinetics. This opens up the possibility for future detection of a stochastic resonance for protein folding subject to noise with controllable amplitude.