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Search indexed NASA NTRS and DOE OSTI research on propulsion, heat transfer, battery materials and energy systems. Follow report and document links to the original sources.

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At least 577 records · Page 32
All sourcesNASA NTRSDOE OSTI
DOE OSTI2025

Seismic Contingency Auto Generator

This code takes in premade earthquake scenario XML files from USGS, power grid data, and converts them into a contingency file (.con file) that can be used by power grid solvers. Within the .con file are a number (Specified by the user) of contingencies that have randomly failed power transformers based on their likelihood of failure and peak ground acceleration (PGA) value around the transformer. The transformers' likelihood of failure was calculated based on a variety of finite element modeling on various transformer designed for specific transformer voltage classes. Parameters from these FEM were used to create generic fragility curves for transformers within a specific voltage class, which correspond with earthquake PGA values to produced a probability of failure for a given earthquake scenario. More refined versions of this process, such as specifying specific transformer design categories within a voltage class, could also be applied in future iterations of the software.

Vaagensmith, Bjorn [Idaho National Laboratory (INL↗
DOE OSTI2020

The Wave Energy Converter Design Process: Methods Applied in Industry and Shortcomings of Current Practices

Wave energy is among the many renewable energy technologies being researched and developed to address the increasing demand for low-emissions energy. The unique design challenges for wave energy converter design—integrating complex and uncertain technological, economic, and ecological systems, overcoming the structural challenges of ocean deployment, and dealing with complex system dynamics—have lead to a disjointed progression of research and development. There is no common design practice across the wave energy industry and there is no published synthesis of the practices that are used by developers. In this paper, we summarize the methods being employed in WEC design as well as promising methods that have yet to be applied. We contextualize these methods within an overarching design process. We present results from a survey of WEC developers to identify methods that are common in industry. From the review and survey results, we conclude that the most common methods of WEC design are iterative methods in which design parameters are defined, evaluated, and then changed based on evaluation results. This leaves a significant space for improvement of methods that help designers make better-informed decisions prior to sophisticated evaluation, and methods of using the evaluation results to make better design decisions during iteration. Despite the popularity of optimization methods in academic research, they are less common in industry development. We end this paper with a summary of the areas of WEC design in which the testing and development of new methods is necessary, and where more research is required to fully understand the influence of design decisions on WEC performance.

16 TIDAL AND WAVE POWER↗
DOE OSTI2020

QCOR; A Language Extension Specification for the Heterogeneous Quantum-Classical Model of Computation

Quantum computing (QC) is an emerging computational paradigm that leverages the laws of quantum mechanics to perform elementary logic operations. Existing programming models for QC were designed with fault-tolerant hardware in mind, envisioning stand-alone applications. However, the susceptibility of near-term quantum computers to noise limits their stand-alone utility. To better leverage limited computational strengths of noisy quantum devices, hybrid algorithms have been suggested whereby quantum computers are used in tandem with their classical counterparts in a heterogeneous fashion. This modus operandi calls out for a programming model and a high-level programming language that natively and seamlessly supports heterogeneous quantum-classical hardware architectures in a single-source-code paradigm. Motivated by the lack of such a model, we introduce a language extension specification, called QCOR, which enables single-source quantum-classical programming. Programs written using the QCOR library–based language extensions can be compiled to produce functional hybrid binary executables. After defining QCOR’s programming model, memory model, and execution model, we discuss how QCOR enables variational, iterative, and feed-forward QC. Additionally, QCOR approaches quantum-classical computation in a hardware-agnostic heterogeneous fashion and strives to build on best practices of high-performance computing. The high level of abstraction in the language extension is intended to accelerate the adoption of QC by researchers familiar with classical high-performance computing.

97 MATHEMATICS AND COMPUTING↗
DOE OSTI2025

Edge-localized mode mitigation enabled by active control of pedestal density gradient with new EAST tokamak divertor

Mitigation of large edge-localized modes (ELMs) has been achieved by actively reducing the pedestal density gradient with the EAST new right-angled lower divertor through changing the strike point position from the vertical target to the horizontal target. A series of dedicated experiments in the 2021–2024 EAST campaigns demonstrate that this ELM control solution is highly reproducible in a broad parameter space of edge safety factor q 95 = 4.7–7.1, heating power P total = 2.3–5 MW, and pedestal collisionality $ν_{e,ped}^{*}$ = 1–6, under both favorable and unfavorable magnetic configurations. Higher plasma density could facilitate the achievement of this ELM control solution. Statistical results indicate that the ELM mitigation effect can be observed at relatively larger Greenwald density fraction of f GW > 0.47. In addition, this ELM mitigation effect can be achieved with both lithium-coated and boronized metal walls. The pedestal density gradient is systematically lower in the horizontal target case than that of the vertical target case when the ELM mitigation effect can be observed. SOLPS-ITER simulation results indicate that the pedestal fueling from divertor recycling is significantly lower in the horizontal target case. This could contribute to the formation of a flattened pedestal density profile with small ELMs.

70 PLASMA PHYSICS AND FUSION TECHNOLOGY↗
DOE OSTI2024

DOE BSSD Performance Management Metrics Report Q1

Microbes play key roles in our biosphere, from driving global nutrient cycling to impacting plant, animal and human health and disease. Complex data from microbial genomes, proteins, and metabolites provide a window into these tiny engines that drive life on our planet. Yet these data are dispersed among researchers’ laboratories and various repositories, making it difficult to access. This calls for new ways of managing data, improving data interoperability, advancing community standards, and creating an infrastructure where data are shared efficiently. We have built the National Microbiome Data Collaborative (NMDC) to advance how scientists create, use, and reuse data to redefine the way we understand and harness the power of microbes. The vision of the National Microbiome Data Collaborative (NMDC) is to drive a microbiome data sharing network connecting data, people, and ideas to advance microbiome innovation and discovery. The NMDC was launched in 2019 and brought together DOE National Laboratories to collaborate across resources, capabilities, and expertise. The NMDC team was strategically assembled to include software developers, microbial researchers, metadata experts, and multi-omics specialists. The diversity of the NMDC team reflects the inherently interdisciplinary nature of microbiome science, and we leverage the strengths of the DOE National Laboratory system. Towards BER’s goal of advancing an iterative systems biology approach to the understanding of microbial genomes, the NMDC serves as a foundation for infrastructure, data standards, and community building. Together with the flagship DOE User Facilities, the Joint Genome Institute (JGI) and the Environmental Molecular Sciences Laboratory (EMSL), we are developing core capabilities in metadata standards for environmental descriptors and sample handling and processing; standardized bioinformatic workflows; an interface for data search and access; and robust community engagement activities. The NMDC production platform supports long-term data infrastructure and community building for BER’s bioenergy and environmental research goals. Our approach leverages lessons learned and an ambitious framework for collaborative, interdisciplinary data infrastructure to support microbiome research. The NMDC supports data, information, and knowledge access through three defined software tools – the Submission Portal, NMDC EDGE, and the Data Portal – driven by community needs. Herein, we describe the value proposition for the microbiome research community, our overarching strategy, and challenges and opportunities for developing the NMDC as both an infrastructure and community engagement program.

59 BASIC BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES↗
DOE OSTI2026

Preliminary Investigation of Target keff Search for Fuel Feed in MSRs

Fluid fuel molten salt reactor (MSR) concepts may achieve continuous-at-power operation with continuous or batch fresh fuel feed to counter reactivity loss from fuel burnup and fission product buildup. Accurate modeling and simulation of MSRs requires consideration of online fuel feed during depletion as well as a capability to determine the required feed amount to maintain a target multiplication factor (keff). As a first step supporting a full implementation of a new search capability into the SCALE code system’s TRITON reactor physics and depletion sequence, a preliminary investigation was performed to identify the best approach for a critical feed search capability considering computation time and accuracy. Using a simple iterative approach in which initial feed amounts were guessed based on previous depletion steps, the main drivers of computation time were found as the Monte Carlo neutron transport settings and the applied tolerance for the target keff. In the applied model, with tight convergence criteria (keff convergence to 8 pcm and a tolerance of ±15 pcm), the critical search calculation required twice the number of neutron transport calculations compared to a depletion calculation without critical search. In contrast, with a relaxed tolerance of ±50 pcm, the overall computation time for the critical search for merely increased by 30-40%. Further studies will be performed before implementing the critical search capability into TRITON.

Faulkner, Jonathon [ORNL]↗
DOE OSTI2022

Overview of the COMPASS results *

COMPASS addressed several physical processes that may explain the behaviour of important phenomena. This paper presents results related to the main fields of COMPASS research obtained in the recent two years, including studies of turbulence, L–H transition, plasma material interaction, runaway electron, and disruption physics: Tomographic reconstruction of the edge/SOL turbulence observed by a fast visible camera allowed to visualize turbulent structures without perturbing the plasma. Dependence of the power threshold on the X-point height was studied and related role of radial electric field in the edge/SOL plasma was identified. The effect of high-field-side error fields on the L–H transition was investigated in order to assess the influence of the central solenoid misalignment and the possibility to compensate these error fields by low-field-side coils. Results of fast measurements of electron temperature during ELMs show the ELM peak values at the divertor are around 80% of the initial temperature at the pedestal. Liquid metals were used for the first time as plasma facing material in ELMy H-mode in the tokamak divertor. Good power handling capability was observed for heat fluxes up to 12 MW m –2 and no direct droplet ejection was observed. Partial detachment regime was achieved by impurity seeding in the divertor. The evolution of the heat flux footprint at the outer target was studied. Runaway electrons were studied using new unique systems—impact calorimetry, carbon pellet injection technique, wide variety of magnetic perturbations. Radial feedback control was imposed on the beam. Forces during plasma disruptions were monitored by a number of new diagnostics for vacuum vessel (VV) motion in order to contribute to the scaling laws of sideways disruption forces for ITER. Current flows towards the divertor tiles, incl. possible short-circuiting through PFCs, were investigated during the VDE experiments. The results support ATEC model and improve understanding of disruption loads.

70 PLASMA PHYSICS AND FUSION TECHNOLOGY↗
DOE OSTI2022

Optimizing detachment control using the magnetic configuration of divertors

Abstract As tokamak research moves to reactor conditions, the control of a stable, optimally-detached divertor plasma has become increasingly relevant. Simple predictions of such detachment control have been performed previously using the detachment location sensitivity (DLS) model (Lipschultz et al 2016 Nucl. Fusion 56 056007). In this study the DLS model is extended and combined with SOLPS-ITER simulations of isolated divertor grids to study the effects of alternate divertor magnetic field properties on detachment control. The DLS model predicts that divertors can achieve easier access to detachment through a long connection length, a high total flux expansion, and a high average magnetic field in the divertor compared with that at the x -point. SOLPS-ITER simulations suggest an even stronger impact of total flux expansion and connection length on detachment access than the DLS model predicts. In terms of detachment evolution, both simulation and modelling show a high gradient in the total magnetic field and low B p o l B are able to more easily keep a detachment front at a desired poloidal location. Regions with no stable detachment front locations can arise for high magnetic field gradients directed towards the target. Significant differences have been found between impurity scan simulations and the DLS model. These differences may be attributed to sources and sinks of power and electron pressure, and should be explored further in future work.

70 PLASMA PHYSICS AND FUSION TECHNOLOGY↗
DOE OSTI2024

Heuristic predictions of RMP configurations for ELM suppression in ITER burning plasmas and their impact on divertor performance

Abstract A subspace of resonant magnetic perturbation (RMP) configurations for edge localized mode (ELM) suppression is predicted for H-mode burning plasmas at 15 MA current and 5.3 T magnetic field in ITER. Perturbations to the core plasma can be reduced by a factor of 2 for equivalent edge stability proxies, while the perturbed plasma boundary geometry remains mostly resilient. The striated domain of perturbed field lines connecting from the main plasma (normalized poloidal flux < 1 ) to the divertor targets is found to be significantly larger than the expected heat load width in the absence of RMPs. This facilitates heat load spreading with peak values at an acceptable level below 10 MW m − 2 on the outer target already at moderate gas fueling and low Ne seeding for additional radiative dissipation of the 100 MW of power into the scrape-off layer (SOL). On the inner target, however, re-attachment is predicted away from the equilibrium strike point due to increased upstream heat flux, higher downstream temperature and less efficient impurity radiation.

3D plasma boundary modeling↗
DOE OSTI2020

Advancing Fusion with Machine Learning Research Needs Workshop Report

Abstract Machine learning and artificial intelligence (ML/AI) methods have been used successfully in recent years to solve problems in many areas, including image recognition, unsupervised and supervised classification, game-playing, system identification and prediction, and autonomous vehicle control. Data-driven machine learning methods have also been applied to fusion energy research for over 2 decades, including significant advances in the areas of disruption prediction, surrogate model generation, and experimental planning. The advent of powerful and dedicated computers specialized for large-scale parallel computation, as well as advances in statistical inference algorithms, have greatly enhanced the capabilities of these computational approaches to extract scientific knowledge and bridge gaps between theoretical models and practical implementations. Large-scale commercial success of various ML/AI applications in recent years, including robotics, industrial processes, online image recognition, financial system prediction, and autonomous vehicles, have further demonstrated the potential for data-driven methods to produce dramatic transformations in many fields. These advances, along with the urgency of need to bridge key gaps in knowledge for design and operation of reactors such as ITER, have driven planned expansion of efforts in ML/AI within the US government and around the world. The Department of Energy (DOE) Office of Science programs in Fusion Energy Sciences (FES) and Advanced Scientific Computing Research (ASCR) have organized several activities to identify best strategies and approaches for applying ML/AI methods to fusion energy research. This paper describes the results of a joint FES/ASCR DOE-sponsored Research Needs Workshop on Advancing Fusion with Machine Learning, held April 30–May 2, 2019, in Gaithersburg, MD (full report available at https://science.osti.gov/-/media/fes/pdf/workshop-reports/FES_ASCR_Machine_Learning_Report.pdf ). The workshop drew on broad representation from both FES and ASCR scientific communities, and identified seven Priority Research Opportunities (PRO’s) with high potential for advancing fusion energy. In addition to the PRO topics themselves, the workshop identified research guidelines to maximize the effectiveness of ML/AI methods in fusion energy science, which include focusing on uncertainty quantification, methods for quantifying regions of validity of models and algorithms, and applying highly integrated teams of ML/AI mathematicians, computer scientists, and fusion energy scientists with domain expertise in the relevant areas.

70 PLASMA PHYSICS AND FUSION TECHNOLOGY↗
DOE OSTI2021

Towards a reliable assessment of charging effects during surface analysis: Accurate spectral shapes of ZrO 2 and Pd/ZrO 2 via X-ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy

X-ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy of large bandgap or insulating material surfaces relies on an effective mechanism that compensates for the emission (loss) of electrons by maintaining the material surface at a steady-state uniform potential. While a steady-state may be attained by utilizing an active compensation, such as low power electron emitting filament, there is the possibility that the surface potential is not uniform over the area analyzed, leading to peak shifts and incorrect spectral interpretation. Here, in this work, a spectral data processing method based on mapping the ZrO 2 and Pd/ZrO 2 surfaces utilizing photoemission peak binding energy is proposed, which provides information about the response of specific material surfaces to charge compensation. Spectromicroscopy of ZrO 2 and Pd/ZrO 2 surfaces without spatial information is used to monitor the efficacy of charge compensation. Exploiting counts distributed over many bins require the use of procedures and algorithms essential to practical mapping peak positions. Iterative singular value decomposition is therefore introduced and utilized as a means of efficiently delivering spatially resolved spectra from which binding energy for peaks is computed. The concepts developed in this work result in robust and accurate peak models of ZrO 2 and Pd/ZrO 2 that can be applied in XPS analysis of not only ZrO 2 but other large bandgap or insulating material surfaces. Supporting arguments for a peak model representing signal from Zr 3p and Pd 3d are developed within this work are presented.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2022

MPACT Theory Manual (V.4.3)

This manual presents the theory underlying the three-dimensional (3D) whole-core, pin-resolved neutron transport calculation methodologies employed in the MPACT code. MPACT’s primary goal is to provide accurate sub-pin power distributions in a computationally efficient manner. To accomplish this, MPACT offers several different transport method options. The 2D/1D method, in which 3D problems are decomposed into an axial stack of radial “slices,” is currently the most commonly used. In this option, two-dimensional (2D) planar solutions are provided by the method of characteristics (MOC), and axial solutions are provided via one-dimensional (1D) approximate diffusion, or P3 solutions. The radial and axial solutions are coupled by (i) axial and radial transverse leakages, and (ii) a global 3D coarse mesh finite difference (CMFD) solve, which provides both acceleration and stability to the solution iteration scheme. The subsequent chapters of this manual present a range of topics, including MOC, CMFD, axial nodal transport solvers, 2D/1D, self-shielding, depletion, thermal-hydraulics, and transient methods. Development of the underlying theory of the 2D/1D method is presented, diagrams are included to highlight important algorithmic flow, and important concepts are discussed as appropriate. This manual is intended to be self-sufficient, but references to published articles and other materials are included for further reading. MPACT is a relatively new code, with new capabilities and many computational methods that did not exist until recently. This manual is an even newer document, with chapters written by several different code contributors working under time constraints. For these reasons, the manual is not yet complete and finalized. Future versions of this manual will address current deficiencies.

97 MATHEMATICS AND COMPUTING↗
DOE OSTI2025

Rancor-HUNTER: Using a Simulator Engine for Realistic Human Performance Modeling of Nuclear Power Operations

The Human Unimodel for Nuclear Technology to Enhance Reliability (HUNTER) is a software system to simulate human performance in support of human reliability analysis (HRA) in nuclear power plants. This paper summarizes recent work to integrate HUNTER with a plant simulator, namely the Rancor Microworld Simulator. Rancor is an offshoot of earlier work at Idaho National Laboratory (INL) to support plant modernization. The graphical software tools used to mimic digital human-system interface upgrades at INL’s Human Systems Simulation Laboratory were linked to the Rancor Microworld Simulator, an INL-developed simplified plant model. HUNTER becomes a “virtual operator” coupled to the Rancor simulator, thereby allowing a tight coupling between a digital human twin and a digital twin of the plant. Rancor-HUNTER may be run through Monte Carlo iterations across a dynamic range of performance shaping factors, thereby producing distributions of human performance in terms of procedure paths, errors instantiations, and task durations. This paper overviews the various unique features of Rancor-HUNTER and presents an example run of Rancor-HUNTER for a startup scenario.

99 - GENERAL AND MISCELLANEOUS↗
DOE OSTI2024

Liquid lithium divertor analysis using coupled plasma material interaction model

A liquid lithium divertor can improve performance of future fusion devices by creating efficient power exhaust and improving the energy confinement via pumping of the hydrogen isotopes. In addition, significantly higher heat fluxes can be handled if controlled vapor shielding is used to redistribute the divertor heat flux over a wider area. Design and optimization of such a system calls for an analysis model which includes a strong two-way coupling between the plasma and divertor material. The incoming plasma heat and particle flux will affect the divertor surface temperature, which is a defining factor of the lithium evaporative and sputtered flux going into the plasma. Results of the coupled model based on the plasma edge code SOLPS-ITER and the computational fluid dynamics (CFD) code ANSYS-CFX will be presented for different configurations. An analytical slab flow model is used as a heat transfer boundary condition for SOLPS, defining particle flux from the wall via calculation of the surface temperature. At the final step, results of the SOLPS analysis are verified using a 3D CFD magnetohydrodynamics (MHD) analysis which uses heat and particle flux from SOLPS as a boundary condition. In addition to plasma heat flux, both analytical and CFD temperature models include several plasma material interaction effects, such as lithium evaporation, condensation and sputtering based on deuterium target flux. New adatom sputtering model based on the available experimental data is presented. Analytical model is expanded to include free surface axisymmetric configurations. Results of parametric studies of the divertor configurations with different lithium inlet temperature and velocity will be presented leading to the optimal design resulting in the lowest possible lithium contamination in the core.

70 PLASMA PHYSICS AND FUSION TECHNOLOGY↗
DOE OSTI2026

Deep Gaussian process-based cost-aware batch Bayesian optimization for complex materials design campaigns

The accelerating pace and expanding scope of materials discovery demand optimization frameworks that efficiently navigate vast design spaces with complex response surfaces while judiciously allocating limited evaluation resources. We present a cost-aware, batch Bayesian optimization scheme powered by deep Gaussian process (DGP) surrogates and a heterotopic querying strategy. Our DGP surrogate, formed by stacking GP layers, models complex hierarchical relationships among high-dimensional compositional features and captures correlations across multiple target properties, propagating uncertainty through successive layers. We integrate evaluation cost into an upper-confidence-bound acquisition extension, which, together with heterotopic querying, proposes small batches of candidates in parallel, balancing exploration of under-characterized regions with exploitation of high-mean, low-variance predictions across correlated properties. Applied to refractory high-entropy alloys for high-temperature applications, our framework converges to optimal formulations in fewer iterations with cost-aware queries than conventional GP-based BO, highlighting the value of deep, uncertainty-aware, cost-sensitive strategies in materials campaigns.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2026

Continuum radiated power density $(P^{\textrm{C}}_{\textrm{rad}})$ and effective charge $(Z_{\textrm{eff}})$ estimates from multi-energy photon-counting measurements

Multi-energy soft x-ray pinhole cameras have been designed, built, calibrated, and operated at Madison symmetric Torus, Alcator C-Mod, and more recently at Tokamak a configuration variable and Tungsten Environment in Steady-State Tokamak (WEST), to measure plasma emission across multiple energy ranges. Here we describe a new methodology to estimate the local continuum radiated power density and the plasma effective charge (Z eff ) directly from photon-counting measurements of the line-free continuum emission (Bremsstrahlung and Radiative Recombination) in several energy bands between 11 and 18 keV. This capability is particularly valuable for confinement systems using metal plasma-facing components, where x-ray losses from interactions with the sputtered wall can represent a significant fraction of the total radiated power (P rad ). The approach leverages a well-characterized detector responsivity, modeled by a complementary error function, and interprets the differential multi-energy measurements between adjacent energy levels through the probability density function of a Gaussian distribution. The implementation of this diagnostic technique is currently under development on the WEST tokamak, aiming at the goal of providing real-time P rad and Z eff measurements during long-pulse operation (up to 1000 s) in the 2026 campaign.

WEST↗
DOE OSTI2024

SYS-5620-Project - Achieving Robust Laser Performance utilizing Historical Shot Experiments - A Systems Engineering Proposal

The National Ignition Facility (NIF) at Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory precisely guides, amplifies, reflects, and focuses 192 powerful laser beams into a target about the size of a pencil eraser in a few billionths of a second, delivering more than 2 million joules of ultraviolet energy and 500 trillion watts of peak power. A crucial goal of the system is to trigger precise implosions of fuel capsules. This is achieved by delivering all 192 beams at user-specified times and locations on the target, minimizing any deviation from the requested performance. Power requirements can vary substantially on each experiment and the facility supports numerous amplifier pumping configurations and their attendant nonlinear effects. To achieve the tight performance required across such a broad array of configurations, constant comparison of measured and requested power delivery are tracked and long-term trends analyzed as a guide to understanding future performance. A very common question asked is given the current state of the laser today – how well would a similar experiment from the past perform today? Additionally, if one were to specify an alternate amplifier configuration using today’s model would and damage limits be exceeded and would there be an increase in performance. The physics model used to make these predictions and equipment protection checks is called the Virtual Beamline (VBL). VBL is used with an incoming desired pulse shape and energy to be delivered on target, and then does an iterative solve to predict the needed injected pulse in the front-end of the system to achieve this result. To effectively guide and predict future NIF experiment performance, laser scientists explore current amplifier configurations and compare them with historical data utilizing a tool called the Reverify Toolbox.

42 ENGINEERING↗
DOE OSTI2024

LAMP DTL Scoping Studies (Technical Report)

The present studies are based on the preliminary design efforts, and on the Scoping Studies of the “Strawman” design of LAMP front-end upgrade, referred in the text below to as “Feb.2024 Iteration”, presented in. The main accomplishment of present studies was substantial increase of the fidelity of the beam dynamics simulations in the proposed drift tube linac (DTL). The main accent was on development of the methodology for calculation of the longitudinal (synchrotron) and transverse (betatron) oscillations frequencies (phase advance per focusing period) values and providing the accelerating structure focusing lattice that has safe parameters of such oscillations to avoid unwanted emittance growth and possible beam halo formation. The resulting values of the oscillations phase advances are presented in Table 1, and in Figure 5 in the main body of the report. Special efforts were made to achieve the RF power consumption within limits of the existing RF power system and make sure that DTL fits in the existing tunnel. The LAMP scope does not suggest any additional building and/or tunnel construction. Table 1 summarizes some of these results, as well as Table 3 in the main body of the report.

43 PARTICLE ACCELERATORS↗