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All sourcesNASA NTRSDOE OSTI
NASA NTRS1993

Visual Earth observation performance in the space environment. Human performance measurement 4: Flight experiments

A wide variety of secondary payloads have flown on the Space Transportation System (STS) since its first flight in the 1980's. These experiments have typically addressed specific issues unique to the zero-gravity environment. Additionally, the experiments use the experience and skills of the mission and payload specialist crew members to facilitate data collection and ensure successful completion. This paper presents the results of the Terra Scout experiment, which flew aboard STS-44 in November 1991. This unique Earth Observation experiment specifically required a career imagery analyst to operate the Spaceborne Direct-View Optical System (SpaDVOS), a folded optical path telescope system designed to mount inside the shuttle on the overhead aft flight deck windows. Binoculars and a small telescope were used as backup optics. Using his imagery background, coupled with extensive target and equipment training, the payload specialist was tasked with documenting the following: (1) the utility of the equipment; (2) his ability to acquire and track ground targets; (3) the level of detail he could discern; (4) the atmospheric conditions; and (5) other in-situ elements which contributed to or detracted from his ability to analyze targets. Special emphasis was placed on the utility of a manned platform for research and development of future spaceborne sensors. The results and lessons learned from Terra Scout will be addressed including human performance and equipment design issues.

Huth, John F.↗
NASA NTRSDate not supplied

Cleanroom Microbes Survive Drying, Vacuum, and Proton Irradiation

Introduction : The goal of planetary protection at NASA is to mitigate the risk of contaminating sensitive target bodies with biological life. While many cleaning procedures have been put in place to reduce bioburden on spacecraft, microbes are experts at evolving to survive harsh conditions. Specifically, the dry, low-nutrient environment of a cleanroom (commonly used for assembly of spacecraft) can represent an environment where extremophiles can survive. Methods : Scientists at NASA MSFC wished to gather a snapshot of the microbial population within a variety of cleanrooms on site. A study was undertaken to collect air, surface, and floor samples from clean-rooms and isolate unique morphologies. From this study, 95 isolates were collected and saved in a microbial library. About 86% of these were identified at least to a genus level. Following identification, 24 microbes were selected, based on a literature review, as potential extremophiles. These were grown in liquid cultures, diluted to a set optical density, washed with water, and then applied to a sterilized Kapton coupon. Droplets were allowed to dry overnight in a biosafety cabinet. Coupons were then installed in a pelletron and pumped down to high vacuum (~1E-6 Torr). Samples were then subjected 100 keV protons at a fluence of 2x10 15 p+/cm 2 up to 4x10 15 p+/cm 2 . Following exposure, samples were returned to the microbiology lab where they were pro-cessed by submerging in water, vortexing, and then plating either droplets or spread plates. Recovery data collected was qualitative with a ranking or +, minor, or – for growth. Some selected radiotolerant strains were sequenced using the Illumina sequencing platform. The resulting genomes were annotated with the Rapid Annotations using Subsystems Technology (RAST) server and analyzed for conserved and unique stress response relevant genomic signatures to identify clues related to specific tolerances. Results and Discussion : After five rounds of proton radiation, we narrowed our isolates to five, non-spore forming bacteria that demonstrated survival: Arthrobacter koreensis, Paenarthrobacter nitroguajacolicus, Mycetocola manganoxydans , and an Erwinia sp. Furthermore, we exposed these four microbes to 254 nm wavelength light at an intensity of 80 W/m 2 at a distance of ~18 cm for 10 minutes. Only A. koreensis demonstrated survival following UV exposure. Finally, we performed whole genome sequencing on the four strains to look for genetic markers of stress resistance. When we compared the genomes of the four strains, we found that genes coding for GGDEF and EAL domains with PAS/PAC sensors were only found in A. koreensis . These domains, modulated by PAS/PAC sensors, are hypothesized to facilitate survival under drying, desiccation, and proton irradiation. Drying and Desiccation : PAS domains sense hydration changes and modulate GGDEF and EAL domain activity to adjust c-di-GMP levels, enhancing resistance to desiccation. For instance, in Pseudomonas aeruginosa , the PAS domain of RbdA modulates activity under varying hydration conditions, affecting stress responses [1]. Proton Irradiation : Proton irradiation causes oxidative stress, leading to ROS generation. PAS domains detect this stress and modulate GGDEF and EAL domains to manage oxidative stress responses. In Shewanella , EAL domain proteins modulated by PAS sensors help bacteria adapt to extreme conditions [2]. These genes upregulate other stress response genes, protecting membrane function, protein stability, DNA repair, and antioxidant defenses. The modulation of c-di-GMP by PAS domains is crucial for bacterial adaptation to stress conditions, enabling dynamic physio-logical adjustments [3]. Understanding these mechanisms provides insights into bacterial stress responses and strategies for controlling bacterial growth [4]. Conclusions : These findings indicate that clean-rooms harbor extremophile microbes that may be able to survive conditions in deep space. Furthermore, while we identified certain stress-response genes that may be at least partly responsible for the phenotypes observed in this study, there are likely unidentified genes or characteristics about A. koreensis , and other bacteria, that may allow them to survive in harsh environments. Future studies will focus on identifying these unknown genes and characteristics, further elucidating the mechanisms of extremophile survival and potentially informing the development of new biotechnologies for space exploration and other extreme environments.

Chelsi Cassilly↗
NASA NTRS2015

Life in the Clouds of Venus? An Experimental Synthetic Biology Approach

The surface of Venus constitutes the most hellish and biologically inhospitable planetary surface in our solar system, boasting a pH of 0, blistering winds that can melt lead, and pressures of 60 atm. However, during the earlier years of the solar system, without the runaway greenhouse effect that has plagued the planet, Venus potentially housed oceans and perhaps even life. There is a possibility that microbes could have retreated into hospitable niches in the atmosphere, as suggested by Carl Sagan as early as 1967 [1]. For example, 50 km above the raging hell of the Venusian surface, exists a relatively temperate environment that might serve as reservoir for life. This astrobiology project seeks to explore life at the extremes and to theorize whether microbial communities could not only survive but also reproduce in the Venusian atmosphere. Specifically, we ask: are aerosols viable microbial environments? But before we can test for life in the clouds, we have to develop a proper reporter to visualize cell growth in situ. For this purpose, we aimed to develop cell-growth dependent reporters to serve as remote biosensors for cell growth. We developed two using the polA promoter, a DNA-replication dependent promoter, and nrd operon promoter, a cell-cycle dependent promoter. Using these cell-growth reporters, the next step is to aerosolize microbes expressing these reporters in a suspension chamber adapted from a Millikan Drop Apparatus to assay reproduction in an aerosolized environment. Better yet is to test the reproduction of microbes in a microgravity regime such as on ISS.Approach: We engineered two cell-cycle dependent genetic reporters. One was the polA promoter which codes for DNA Polymerase I, a gene active in DNA replication [2]. The other was the nrdP. The activation of ribonucleotide reductase reduces ribonucleotides into deoxyribonucleotides and is involved in the bacterial cell cycle [3]. This promoter began activation during the initiation of DNA replication and is cell-cycle dependent [4]. These promoters were fused to a GFP reporter, transformed into E. coli. The constructs were deposited in the iGEM registry as K847210: Escherichia coli DNA-replication dependent polA promoter K847211: Escherichia coli cell-division dependent nrd promoter Results: Our constructs displayed fluorescence when transformed into NEB-5alpha competent cells. While nrdP-E0840 displayed sufficient fluorescence as verified by fluorescent microscopy, the original polAP-E0840 construct (which uses mut3b GFP) exhibited low expression; while fluorescence was visible under the microscope, the signal was too weak for the camera to recognize. The polA promoter was therefore digest-ed with EcoRI and SpeI then ligated into plasmid pNCS containing a RBS, Clover, and a terminator. Clover is a highly engineered green fluorescent protein that exhibits extreme brightness [5] Fluoresence time course data demonsrated that the genes were induced in a cell cycle dependant manner [6]. Our assays via microscopy and the bulk assay shows that our promoters are functional as cell cycle reporters.Conclusions: The application of such tools are widespread and not limited to astrobiology; nrdP could be used to determine doubling times empirically and could possibly extrapolate DNA content from intensity of signals expressed by polAP. However, we are pri-marily interested in its use in astrobiology.

Escherichia↗
NASA NTRS2010

Advanced Flip Chips in Extreme Temperature Environments

The use of underfill materials is necessary with flip-chip interconnect technology to redistribute stresses due to mismatching coefficients of thermal expansion (CTEs) between dissimilar materials in the overall assembly. Underfills are formulated using organic polymers and possibly inorganic filler materials. There are a few ways to apply the underfills with flip-chip technology. Traditional capillary-flow underfill materials now possess high flow speed and reduced time to cure, but they still require additional processing steps beyond the typical surface-mount technology (SMT) assembly process. Studies were conducted using underfills in a temperature range of -190 to 85 C, which resulted in an increase of reliability by one to two orders of magnitude. Thermal shock of the flip-chip test articles was designed to induce failures at the interconnect sites (-40 to 100 C). The study on the reliability of flip chips using underfills in the extreme temperature region is of significant value for space applications. This technology is considered as an enabling technology for future space missions. Flip-chip interconnect technology is an advanced electrical interconnection approach where the silicon die or chip is electrically connected, face down, to the substrate by reflowing solder bumps on area-array metallized terminals on the die to matching footprints of solder-wettable pads on the chosen substrate. This advanced flip-chip interconnect technology will significantly improve the performance of high-speed systems, productivity enhancement over manual wire bonding, self-alignment during die joining, low lead inductances, and reduced need for attachment of precious metals. The use of commercially developed no-flow fluxing underfills provides a means of reducing the processing steps employed in the traditional capillary flow methods to enhance SMT compatibility. Reliability of flip chips may be significantly increased by matching/tailoring the CTEs of the substrate material and the silicon die or chip, and also the underfill materials. Advanced packaging interconnects technology such as flip-chip interconnect test boards have been subjected to various extreme temperature ranges that cover military specifications and extreme Mars and asteroid environments. The eventual goal of each process step and the entire process is to produce components with 100 percent interconnect and satisfy the reliability requirements. Underfill materials, in general, may possibly meet demanding end use requirements such as low warpage, low stress, fine pitch, high reliability, and high adhesion.

Ramesham, Rajeshuni↗
NASA NTRS2013

Communications Dashboard (Control Rooms Take a Cue from Facebook), Chapter 1

Papers published via IEEE and AIAA conferences have presented an overview of how social media could benefit NASA working environments in general and proposed three specific social applications to benefit space flight control operations. One of them, Communications Dashboard, would help a real time flight controller keep up with both the "big picture" and significant details of operations via a cohesive interface similar to those of social networking services (SNS). Instead of recreational social features, "CommDash" would support functions like console logging, categorized and threaded text chat streams with enhanced accountability and graphics display features, high-level status displays driven by telemetry or other events, and an on-screen hailing function for requesting voice or text stream conversation. Moving certain voice conversations to text streams would reduce confusion and stress in two ways. Within text conversations, there would be far less repetition of content since text conversations have visual persistence and are reviewable instantly, e.g., there s no need to brief new participants to a discussion -- they just read what s already there. Remaining voice traffic would stand out more clearly, and quieter voice loops means fewer "say again" calls and less distraction from visual and mental tasks, thus less stress. (Most flight controllers monitor 4 or 5 voice loops at once.) Links could be created from console log entries to chat selections so that underlying details are readily available yet unobtrusive. This would reduce the confusion that rises from having multiple and sometimes divergent copies of the same information due to cut/copy and paste operations, attachments, and asynchronous editing. This concept could apply to a plethora of real time control environments and to other settings with lots of information juggling. This paper explores the dashboard concept in further detail and chronicles the first phase of a NASA IT Labs (Information Technology) project that could lead to a working system

Scott, David w.↗
NASA NTRS1996

Experimental Investigation of Pool Boiling Heat Transfer Enhancement in Microgravity in the Presence of Electric Fields

Boiling is an effective mode of heat transfer since high heat flux levels are possible driven by relatively small temperature differences. The high heat transfer coefficients associated with boiling have made the use of these processes increasingly attractive to aerospace engineering. Applications of this type include compact evaporators in the thermal control of aircraft avionics and spacecraft environments, heat pipes, and use of boiling to cool electronic equipment. In spite of its efficiency, cooling based on liquid-vapor phase change processes has not yet found wide application in aerospace engineering due to specific problems associated with the low gravity environment. After a heated surface has reached the superheat required for the initiation of nucleate boiling, bubbles will start forming at nucleation sites along the solid interface by evaporation of the liquid. Bubbles in contact with the wall will continue growing by this mechanism until they detach. In terrestrial conditions, bubble detachment is determined by the competition between body forces (e.g. buoyancy) and surface tension forces that act to anchor the bubble along the three phase contact line. For a given body force potential and a balance of tensions along the three phase contact line, bubbles must reach a critical size before the body force can cause them to detach from the wall. In a low gravity environment the critical bubble size for detachment is much larger than under terrestrial conditions, since buoyancy is a less effective means of bubble removal. Active techniques of heat transfer enhancement in single phase and phase change processes by utilizing electric fields have been the subject of intensive research during recent years. The field of electrohydrodynamics (EHD) deals with the interactions between electric fields, flow fields and temperature fields. Previous studies indicate that in terrestrial applications nucleate boiling heat transfer can be increased by a factor of 50 as compared to values obtained for the same system without electric fields. Imposing an external electric field holds the promise to improve pool boiling heat transfer in low gravity, since a phase separation force other than gravity is introduced. The goal of our research is to experimentally investigate the potential of EHD and the mechanisms responsible for EHD heat transfer enhancement in boiling in low gravity conditions.

Herman, Cila↗
NASA NTRS1962

A CONSIDERATION OF THE U.S. NAVY STRATO-LAB BALLOON PROGRAM AND ITS CONTRIBUTIONS TO MANNED SPACE FLIGHT

As the coined name Strato-Lab implies, it is a program which provides a stratospheric laboratory utilizing a plastic balloon platform for manned research investigations. The project was originated in 1954; actual work began early in 1955 and the first manned stratospheric flights were made in 1956. It was conceived and has been continued with the following three objectives: (1) Provide a high-altitude research system, a scientific laboratory, permitting man's active scientific participation (2) Provide an opportunity for studies of man's reactions to an actual environment of physiological and psychological stress (3) Allow an opportunity for man to conduct tests and evaluate specific components and/or techniques in an extremely high altitude environment.

Stratosphere↗
NASA NTRS1985

Thermal barrier coating life prediction model development

A methodology was established to predict thermal barrier coating life in an environment simulative of that experienced by gas turbine airfoils. Specifically, work is being conducted to determine failure modes of thermal barrier coatings in the aircraft engine environment. Analytical studies coupled with appropriate physical and mechanical property determinations are being employed to derive coating life prediction model(s) on the important failure mode(s). An initial review of experimental and flight service components indicates that the predominant mode of TBC failure involves thermomechanical spallation of the ceramic coating layer. This ceramic spallation involves the formation of a dominant crack in the ceramic coating parallel to and closely adjacent to the metal-ceramic interface. Initial results from a laboratory test program designed to study the influence of various driving forces such as temperature, thermal cycle frequency, environment, and coating thickness, on ceramic coating spalling life suggest that bond coat oxidation damage at the metal-ceramic interface contributes significantly to thermomechanical cracking in the ceramic layer. Low cycle rate furnace testing in air and in argon clearly shows a dramatic increase of spalling life in the non-oxidizing environments.

Sheffler, K. D.↗
NASA NTRS1974

A Statistical Approach to Establishing Subsystem Environmental Test Specifications

Results are presented of a research task to evaluate structural responses at various subsystem mounting locations during spacecraft level test exposures to the environments of mechanical shock, acoustic noise, and random vibration. This statistical evaluation is presented in the form of recommended subsystem test specifications for these three environments as normalized to a reference set of spacecraft test levels and are thus suitable for extrapolation to a set of different spacecraft test levels. The recommendations are dependent upon a subsystem's mounting location in a spacecraft, and information is presented on how to determine this mounting zone for a given subsystem.

Keegan, W. B.↗
NASA NTRS1983

Environmental Measurements Session summaries

Emphasis was placed on data from payloads flown on the subject flights including results from the Induced Environment Contamination monitor (IECM). Brief summaries of the vibroacoustics, loads, electromagnetic and thermal aspects of the environment, as derived from Shuttle system measurements, were presented primarily to indicate where the environment was different than observed and, therefore, where specification changes may be forthcoming. In addition, brief summaries of two somewhat unexpected effects, the vehicle glow and interaction between the low Earth environment and Shuttle payload by materials were presented as an aid in interpreting other environmental data. Papers for each payload/experiment involved in Shuttle flights were presented essentially in flight related chronological order. A significant portion of time was allocated for presentation of IECM data since this payload was flown on STS-2, STS-3, and STS-4 and, therefore, represents the largest data base relative to the contamination environment. Summaries of papers are presented.

Lehmann, J.↗
NASA NTRS1997

An Integrated Product Environment

Mechanical Advantage is a mechanical design decision support system. Unlike our CAD/CAM cousins, Mechanical Advantage addresses true engineering processes, not just the form and fit of geometry. If we look at a traditional engineering environment, we see that an engineer starts with two things - performance goals and design rules. The intent is to have a product perform specific functions and accomplish that within a designated environment. Geometry should be a simple byproduct of that engineering process - not the controller of it. Mechanical Advantage is a performance modeler allowing engineers to consider all these criteria in making their decisions by providing such capabilities as critical parameter analysis, tolerance and sensitivity analysis, math driven Geometry, and automated design optimizations. If you should desire an industry standard solid model, we would produce an ACIS-based solid model. If you should desire an ANSI/ISO standard drawing, we would produce this as well with a virtual push of the button. For more information on this and other Advantage Series products, please contact the author.

Higgins, Chuck↗
NASA NTRS2022

Sample Materials Considerations for Curating and Processing Pristine MSR Samples

The perseverance rover is collecting and caching samples of Mars as part of the Mars 2020 mission, which represents the first leg of a multi-mission Mars Sample Return Campaign. The MSR Campaign is an international partnership that will result in delivery of the first martian samples to Earth that were not delivered through meteoritic infall. All meteorites, regardless of how they were handled from recovery to curation, have experienced uncontrolled entry and exposure to the terrestrial environment. Whilst meteorite deliveries are serendipitous, they are also unplanned events that require reactionary responses for recovery and curation. However, with the direct return of pristine astromaterials from another body, we are afforded the ability to design a facility in advance of sample delivery to keep those samples in a pristine (i.e., as returned) state for an indefinite period of time. Given that the curation and processing infrastructure needs to be made out of something, it is important to choose materials for the pristine curation environment that will optimize between the need to effectively process samples and the need to minimize contamination of the samples. The Johnson Space Center (JSC) has an optimized list of materials that have been used in previous sample return missions that includes 304/316 Stainless Steel, Teflon, and T6061 Aluminum (1). This set of materials are compatible with inorganic, organic, and biological cleanliness requirements and protocols. Furthermore, only these materials are permitted to come in contact with pristine samples. We note that JSC uses Neoprene and Hypalon for the gloves on their gloveboxes, but the glove material never comes in direct contact with the samples, only the approved materials. The MSR sample tubes will be made of Ti, so Ti may be an acceptable material for making tools, but the minor and trace element abundances of 304 and 316 stainless steel are well known and do not inhibit scientific investigations of metals, including HSE (2). More work is needed to determine whether the same is true for Ti alloys. In addition to defining the materials in the pristine environment, one must also choose whether the pristine environment will be under vacuum or under a specific atmospheric composition and pressure. Although JAXA has successfully implemented pristine curation vacuum chambers for their Hayabusa and Hayabusa2 samples (3), a vacuum environment is not appropriate for martian samples because it may drive deliquescence of mineral phases in the samples that are sensitive to pressure and relative humidity (4). Consequently, the pristine environment for the martian samples should be under an inert gas. It will be crucial to minimize the number of gases that come into direct contact with samples and these gases will need to be high purity and consistent throughout the pristine isolators. Samples at JSC are stored under high purity gaseous nitrogen (1). Dry N2 gas has not been a problem for N isotope studies for high-T release phases, but an additional inert atmosphere like Ar may be needed for samples where there is a particular concern about low-T release of N from bulk sample analysis. References: (1) McCubbin FM, et al. (2019) Space Science Reviews, 215, 1-81. (2) Day JMD, et al. (2018) Meteorit. Planet. Sci. 53:1283-1291. (3) Yada, T., et al., (2014). Meteorit. Planet. Sci. 49, 135-153. (4) Tosca NJ, et al. (2021). Astrobiology, in press, doi:10.1089/ast.2021.0115.

F M McCubbin↗
NASA NTRS1993

Derivation of the midinfrared (5.0-25.0 micron) optical constants of hydrous carbonate and sulfate

There is ample theoretical and observational evidence suggesting liquid water was once stable at the surface of Mars. Because water is essential to the evolution of life, it is important to understand the types of environments in which the liquid water was present. For example, if water were present early in Mars' history, then this raises the possibility that biological activity may have evolved only to eventually become extinct as liquid water became scarce. Alternatively, if liquid water were stable only later in Mars' history, then it becomes problematic to envision mechanisms by which biological activity evolved and remained viable without water until more favorable conditions existed. Even without biological activity, atmospheric carbon dioxide dissolved in water can assist the chemical weathering of primary igneous minerals producing common secondary phases such as hydartes, carbonates, and sulfates. While the identification of hydrates, carbonates, and sulfates on Mars cannot provide direct evidence of biological activity, it can provide significant information regarding the presence and duration of an environment that would support the presence of liquid water at the surface. The specific mineralogy of these secondary phases can provide insight into the environments of their formation. For example, the slow precipitation that occurs in large standing bodies of water, e.g. oceans or lakes, commonly results in the formation of calcite, magnesite, dolomite, siderite, and rhodochrosite. Rapid precipitation that occurs in ephemeral bodies of water, e.g. hypersaline lakes or playas, can result in the formation of all of the above phases as well as aragonite, vaterite, hydrated carbonates, alkali carbonates, bicarbonates, and other poorly ordered phases. Absorption features identified in recent near-infrared spectra of Mars have been interpreted as being due to bicarbonate and bisulfate located in the mineral scaplite. Spectral data returned by the Mariner 6 and 7 spacecraft have been inerpreted as remaining consistent with the presence of hydrated carbonates. Additional, airborne thermal infrared spectra of Mars have been interpreted as implying the presence of carbonates, sulfates, and hydrates. Modeling of the thermal infrared data relied upon the optical constants of calcite anhydrite and a mixture of water in basalt because of their availability. The derived abundances of carbonate and sulfate were 1-3 percent and 10-15 percent by volume. However, the observed complexity and positions of the bands suggested other carbonate-, and sulfate-bearing species. We have already derived optical constants for hydrous and anhydrous silicates, and we are now applying these techniques to the derivation of the optical constants of hydrous carbonate and sulfate.

Roush, Ted L.↗
NASA NTRS1974

A filter spectrometer concept for facsimile cameras

A concept which utilizes interference filters and photodetector arrays to integrate spectrometry with the basic imagery function of a facsimile camera is described and analyzed. The analysis considers spectral resolution, instantaneous field of view, spectral range, and signal-to-noise ratio. Specific performance predictions for the Martian environment, the Viking facsimile camera design parameters, and a signal-to-noise ratio for each spectral band equal to or greater than 256 indicate the feasibility of obtaining a spectral resolution of 0.01 micrometers with an instantaneous field of view of about 0.1 deg in the 0.425 micrometers to 1.025 micrometers range using silicon photodetectors. A spectral resolution of 0.05 micrometers with an instantaneous field of view of about 0.6 deg in the 1.0 to 2.7 micrometers range using lead sulfide photodetectors is also feasible.

Jobson, D. J.↗
NASA NTRS1975

Plasma Sterilization Technology for Spacecraft Applications

The application of plasma gas technology to sterilization and decontamination of spacecraft components is considered. Areas investigated include: effective sterilizing ranges of four separate gases; lethal constituents of a plasma environment; effectiveness of plasma against a diverse group of microorganisms; penetrating efficiency of plasmas for sterilization; and compatibility of spacecraft materials with plasma environments. Results demonstrated that plasma gas, specifically helium plasma, is a highly effective sterilant and is compatible with spacecraft materials.

Fraser, S. J.↗
NASA NTRS1979

Power Extension Package (PEP) system definition extension, orbital service module systems analysis study. Volume 5: PEP environmental specification

This specification establishes the natural and induced environments to which the power extension package may be exposed during ground operations and space operations with the shuttle system. Space induced environments are applicable at the Orbiter attach point interface location. All probable environments are systematically listed according to each ground and mission phase.

Source record↗
NASA NTRS1982

Science and technology results from the OSS-1 Payload on the Space Shuttle

The OSS-1 Payload of nine experiments was carried on the STS-3 Space Shuttle flight in March of 1982. The OSS-1 Payload contained four instruments that evaluated specific aspects of the Orbiter's environment, including the levels of particulate, gaseous and electromagnetic emissions given off by the Orbiter, and the interactions between the Orbiter and the surrounding plasma. In addition to these environmental observations, these instruments performed scientific investigations in astronomy and in space plasma physics, including active experiments in electron beam propagation. Other experiments were in the areas of solar physics, plant growth, micrometeorite studies and the technology of actively controlled heat pipes. A description is given of the initial results from these experiments, with some implications of these results for future operation of space experiments from the Shuttle payload bay. One major result was the unexpected discovery of a faint surface-induced optical glow created near the Shuttle surfaces by impacts of ambient atmospheric atoms and molecules.

Chipman, E.↗