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NASA NTRS2010

NASA's Earth Observing System (EOS): Delivering on the Dream, Today and Tomorrow

This paper describes the successful operations of NASA's Earth Observing System (EOS) satellites over the past 10 years and the plans for the future. Excellent operations performance has been a key factor in the overall success of EOS. The EOS Program was conceived in the 1980s and began to take shape in the early 1990s. EOS consists of a series of satellites that study the Earth as an interrelated system. It began with the launch of Terra in December 1999, followed by Aqua in May 2002, and Aura in July 2004. A key EOS goal is to provide a long-term continuous data set to enable the science community to develop a better understanding of land, ocean, and atmospheric processes and their interactions. EOS has produced unprecedented amounts of data which are used all over the world free of charge. Mission operations have resulted in data recovery for Terra, Aqua, and Aura that have consistently exceeded mission requirements. The paper describes the ground systems and organizations that control the EOS satellites, capture the raw data, and distribute the processed science data sets. The paper further describes how operations have evolved since 1999. Examples of this evolution include (a) the implementation of new mission safety requirements for orbital debris monitoring; (b) technology upgrades to keep facilities at the state of the art; (c) enhancements to meet changing security requirements; and (d) operations management of the 2 international Earth Observing Constellations of 11 satellites known as the "Morning Constellation" and the "A-Train". The paper concludes with a view into the future based on the latest spacecraft status, lifetime projections, and mission plans.

Kelly, Angelita C.↗
NASA NTRS1982

A survey of manufacturers of solar thermal energy systems

Sixty-seven firms that had received funding for development of solar thermal energy systems (STES) were surveyed. The effect of the solar thermal technology systems program in accelerating (STES) were assessed. The 54 firms still developing STES were grouped into a production typology comparing the three major technologies with three basic functions. It was discovered that large and small firms were developing primarily central receiver systems, but also typically worked on more than one technology. Most medium-sized firms worked only on distributed systems. Federal support of STES was perceived as necessary to allow producers to take otherwise unacceptable risks. Approximately half of the respondents would drop out of STES if support were terminated, including a disproportionate number of medium-sized firms. A differentiated view of the technology, taking into account differing firm sizes and the various stages of technology development, was suggested for policy and planning purposes.

Levine, N.↗
NASA NTRS1994

A PC based time domain reflectometer for space station cable fault isolation

Significant problems are faced by astronauts on orbit in the Space Station when trying to locate electrical faults in multi-segment avionics and communication cables. These problems necessitate the development of an automated portable device that will detect and locate cable faults using the pulse-echo technique known as Time Domain Reflectometry. A breadboard time domain reflectometer (TDR) circuit board was designed and developed at the NASA-JSC. The TDR board works in conjunction with a GRiD lap-top computer to automate the fault detection and isolation process. A software program was written to automatically display the nature and location of any possible faults. The breadboard system can isolate open circuit and short circuit faults within two feet in a typical space station cable configuration. Follow-on efforts planned for 1994 will produce a compact, portable prototype Space Station TDR capable of automated switching in multi-conductor cables for high fidelity evaluation. This device has many possible commercial applications, including commercial and military aircraft avionics, cable TV, telephone, communication, information and computer network systems. This paper describes the principle of time domain reflectometry and the methodology for on-orbit avionics utility distribution system repair, utilizing the newly developed device called the Space Station Time Domain Reflectometer (SSTDR).

Pham, Michael↗
NASA NTRS1997

Aviation Simulators for the Desktop: Panel and Demonstrations

Panel Members are: Christine M. Mitchell (Georgia Tech), Michael T. Palmer (NASA Langley), Greg Pisani (NASA Ames), and Amy R. Pritchett (MIT). The Panel members are affiliated with aviation human factors groups from NASA Ames, NASA Langley, MITCHELL Department of Aerospace and Aeronautical Engineering, and Georgia Technics Center for Human-Machine Systems Research. Panelists will describe the simulator(s) used in their respective institutions including a description of the FMS aircraft models, software, hardware, and displays. Panelists will summarize previous, on-going, and planned empirical studies conducted with the simulators. Greg Pisanich will describe two NASA Ames simulation systems: the Stone Soup Simulator (SSS), and the Airspace Operations Human Factors Simulation Laboratory. The the Stone Soup Simulator is a desktop-based, research flight simulator that includes mode control, flight management, and datalink functionality. It has been developed as a non-proprietary simulator that can be easily distributed to academic and industry researchers who are collaborating on NASA research projects. It will be used and extended by research groups represented by at least two panelists (Mitchell and Palmer). The Airspace Operations Simulator supports the study of air traffic control in conjunction with the flight deck. This simulator will be used provide an environment in which many AATT and free flight concepts can be demonstrated and evaluated. Mike Palmer will describe two NASA Langley efforts: The Langley Simulator and MD-11 extensions to the NASA Amesbury simulator. The first simulator is publicly available and combines a B-737 model with a high fidelity flight management system. The second simulator enhances the S3 simulator with MD-11 electronic flight displays together with modifications to the flight and FMS models to emulate MD-11 dynamics and operations. Chris Mitchell will describe GT-EFIRT (Georgia Tech-Electronic Flight Instrument Research Tool) and B-757 enhancements to the NASA Ames S3. GT-EFIRT is a medium fidelity simulator used to conduct preliminary studies of the CATS (crew activity tracking system). Like the Langley efforts with S3, the Georgia Tech enhancements will allow it to emulate the dynamics and operations of a widely used glass cockpit. Amy Pritchett will describe the MIT simulator(s) that have been used in a range of research investigating cockpit displays, warning devices, and flight deck-ATC interaction.

Pisanich, Greg↗
NASA NTRS2006

Impact of Probabilistic Weather on Flight Routing Decisions

Flight delays in the United States have been found to increase year after year, along with the increase in air traffic. During the four-month period from May through August of 2005, weather related delays accounted for roughly 70% of all reported delays, The current weather prediction in tactical (within 2 hours) timeframe is at manageable levels, however, the state of forecasting weather for strategic (2-6 hours) timeframe is still not dependable for long-term planning. In the absence of reliable severe weather forecasts, the decision-making for flights longer than two hours is challenging. This paper deals with an approach of using probabilistic weather prediction for Traffic Flow Management use, and a general method using this prediction for estimating expected values of flight length and delays in the National Airspace System (NAS). The current state-of-the-art convective weather forecasting is employed to aid the decision makers in arriving at decisions for traffic flow and flight planing. The six-agency effort working on the Next Generation Air Transportation System (NGATS) have considered weather-assimilated decision-making as one of the principal foci out of a list of eight. The weather Integrated Product Team has considered integrated weather information and improved aviation weather forecasts as two of the main efforts (Ref. 1, 2). Recently, research has focused on the concept of operations for strategic traffic flow management (Ref. 3) and how weather data can be integrated for improved decision-making for efficient traffic management initiatives (Ref. 4, 5). An overview of the weather data needs and benefits of various participants in the air traffic system along with available products can be found in Ref. 6. Previous work related to use of weather data in identifying and categorizing pilot intrusions into severe weather regions (Ref. 7, 8) has demonstrated a need for better forecasting in the strategic planning timeframes and moving towards a probabilistic description of weather (Ref. 9). This paper focuses on. specified probability in a local region for flight intrusion/deviation decision-making. The process uses a probabilistic weather description, implements that in a air traffic assessment system to study trajectories of aircraft crossing a cut-off probability contour. This value would be useful for meteorologists in creating optimum distribution profiles for severe weather, Once available, the expected values of flight path and aggregate delays are calculated for efficient operations. The current research, however, does not deal with the issue of multiple cell encounters, as well as echo tops, and will be a topic of future work.

Sheth, Kapil↗
NASA NTRS2009

Robotic Recon for Human Exploration

Robotic reconnaissance has the potential to significantly improve scientific and technical return from lunar surface exploration. In particular, robotic recon may increase crew productivity and reduce operational risk for exploration. However, additional research, development and field-testing is needed to mature robot and ground control systems, refine operational protocols, and specify detailed requirements. When the new lunar surface campaign begins around 2020, and before permanent outposts are established, humans will initially be on the Moon less than 10% of the time. During the 90% of time between crew visits, robots will be available to perform surface operations under ground control. Understanding how robotic systems can best address surface science needs, therefore, becomes a central issue Prior to surface missions, lunar orbiters (LRO, Kaguya, Chandrayyan-1, etc.) will map the Moon. These orbital missions will provide numerous types of maps: visible photography, topographic, mineralogical and geochemical distributions, etc. However, remote sensing data will not be of sufficient resolution, lighting, nor view angle, to fully optimize pre-human exploration planning, e.g., crew traverses for field geology and geophysics. Thus, it is important to acquire supplemental and complementary surface data. Robotic recon can obtain such data, using robot-mounted instruments to scout the surface and subsurface at resolutions and at viewpoints not achievable from orbit. This data can then be used to select locations for detailed field activity and prioritize targets to improve crew productivity. Surface data can also help identify and assess terrain hazards, and evaluate alternate routes to reduce operational risk. Robotic recon could be done months in advance, or be part of a continuing planning process during human missions.

Deans, Matthew↗
NASA NTRS2012

Recent Results from the Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter Mission and Plans for the Extended Science Phase

The Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter spacecraft (LRO), launched on June 18, 2009, began with the goal of seeking safe landing sites for future robotic missions or the return of humans to the Moon as part of NASA's Exploration Systems Mission Directorate (ESMD). In addition, LRO's objectives included the search for surface resources and to investigate the Lunar radiation environment. After spacecraft commissioning, the ESMD phase of the mission began on September 15, 2009 and completed on September 15, 2010 when operational responsibility for LRO was transferred to NASA's Science Mission Directorate (SMD). The SMD mission was scheduled for 2 years and completed in September, 2012. The LRO mission has been extended for two years under SMD. The extended mission focuses on a new set of goals related to understanding the geologic history of the Moon, its current state, and what it can tell us about the evolution Of the Solar System. Here we will review the major results from the LRO mission for both exploration and science and discuss plans and objectives going forward including plans for the extended science phase out to 2014. Results from the LRO mission include but are not limited to the development of comprehensive high resolution maps and digital terrain models of the lunar surface; discoveries on the nature of hydrogen distribution, and by extension water, at the lunar poles; measurement of the day and night time temperature of the lunar surface including temperature down below 30 K in permanently shadowed regions (PSRs); direct measurement of Hg, H2, and CO deposits in the PSRs, evidence for recent tectonic activity on the Moon, and high resolution maps of the illumination conditions as the poles. The objectives for the second and extended science phases of the mission under SMD include: 1) understanding the bombardment history of the Moon, 2) interpreting Lunar geologic processes, 3) mapping the global Lunar regolith, 4) identifying volatiles on the Moon, and 5) measuring the Lunar atmosphere and radiation environment.

Vondrak, Richard↗
NASA NTRS2021

Climate Change Impacts and Adaptation for Dryland Farming Systems in Zimbabwe: A Stakeholder-Driven Integrated Multi-Model Assessment

Decision makers need accurate information to address climate variability and change and accelerate transformation to sustainability. A stakeholder-driven, science-based multi-model approach has been developed and used by the Agricultural Model Intercomparison and Improvement Project (AgMIP) to generate actionable information for adaptation planning processes. For a range of mid-century climate projections—likely to be hotter, drier, and more variable—contrasting future socio-economic scenarios (Representative Agricultural Pathways, RAPs) were co-developed with stakeholders to portray a sustainable development scenario and a rapid economic growth pathway. The unique characteristic of this application is the integration of a multi-modeling approach with stakeholder engagement to co-develop scenarios and adaptation strategies. Distribution of outcomes were simulated with climate, crop, livestock, and economic impact assessment models for smallholder crop livestock farmers in a typical dryland agro-ecological zone in Zimbabwe, characterized by low and erratic rainfall and nutrient depleted soils. Results showed that in Nkayi District, Western Zimbabwe, climate change would threaten most of the farms, and, in particular, those with large cattle herds due to feed shortages. Adaptation strategies that showed the most promise included diversification using legume production, soil fertility improvement, and investment in conducive market environments. The switch to more legumes in the farming systems reduced the vulnerability of the very poor as well as the more resourced farmers. Overall, the sustainable development scenario consistently addressed institutional failures and motivated productivity-enhancing, environmentally sound technologies and inclusive development approaches. This yielded more favorable outcomes than investment in quick economic wins from commercializing agriculture.

Climate change adaptation↗
NASA NTRS1994

The 25th Annual Precise Time and Time Interval (PTTI) Applications and Planning Meeting

Papers in the following categories are presented: recent developments in rubidium, cesium, and hydrogen-based frequency standards, and in cryogenic and trapped-ion technology; international and transnational applications of precise time and time interval (PTTI) technology with emphasis on satellite laser tracking networks, GLONASS timing, intercomparison of national time scales and international telecommunication; applications of PTTI technology to the telecommunications, power distribution, platform positioning, and geophysical survey industries; application of PTTI technology to evolving military communications and navigation systems; and dissemination of precise time and frequency by means of GPS, GLONASS, MILSTAR, LORAN, and synchronous communications satellites.

Sydnor, Richard L.↗
NASA NTRS1978

Information systems

Space-derived information is the principal product of our civilian space program. Associated data from earth-orbital and planetary spacecraft will exceed the equivalent of some 500 television pictures per second during the 1980's. Cost-effective management of this data flood requires a new look at NASA's overall information systems. Advanced technologies being pursued by industry and NASA could provide order-of-magnitude reductions in data-handling costs and times to permit a massive increase in the use of space-acquired data for both individual and national needs. This paper discusses attendant thrusts in efficient data acquisition, instrument pointing, real-time data management, and low-cost data distribution. Current and planned technology activities in these areas and their anticipated impact on future space missions are described.

Kurzhals, P. R.↗
NASA NTRS1987

Roadside tree attenuation measurements at UHF for land mobile satellite systems

Tree attenuation results at 870 MHz are described for experiments conducted in October 1985 and March 1986 in Central Maryland. These experiments employed a helicopter as a source platform and a van with receiver and data acquisition instrumentation. Tree attenuation results were obtained for the cases in which the van was stationary and in motion. The experiments were performed for the purpose of providing the designers of planned land mobile satellite systems with important elements in the determination of link parameter requirements; namely, the expected fading statistics due to roadside trees for both mobile and stationary vehicles. Single tree attenuation results gave worst case median fades as high as 15 dB although roadside tree values were noted to produce fades in excess of 20 dB for small percentages of time. The cumulative fade distributions and their relative contributions as a function of path elevation angle, right side versus left side driving, and different road types are derived from the field measurements. Upon comparing the attenuations from bare deciduous trees (March 1986) with those due to trees in full foliage (October 1985), the increase in dB attenuations were, in general, less than 25 percent for the dynamic cases, and less than 40 percent for the worst case static configuration. This result demonstrates that the dominant fading is caused by the wooded tree branches as opposed to the leaves on these branches. The tail end of the observed fade distributions was observed to follow lognormal distributions with respect to dB attenuation.

Goldhirsh, Julius↗
NASA NTRS2005

STS-114: Discovery Return to Flight Imagery Briefing

George Diller, from NASA Public Affairs, introduces Bob Page who is the chairman of the NASA Intercenter Photo Working Group. Page discusses the purpose of the group which is to perform an analysis of all imagery captured of spacecraft launches. He presents charts to discuss return to flight optics. The charts consist of: 1) Overall Shuttle Imagery Plan; 2) Baseline Configuration Imagery; 3) Upgraded Operational Television (OTV) Cameras; 4) Mobile Launch Platform Cameras; 5) Fixed Service Structure Cameras; 6) Kimeto Tracking Mount (KMT); 7) MOTS (Mobile Optical Tracking System); 8) Intermediate Focal Length Optical Tracker (IFLOT); 9) Distant Object Attitude Measurement System (DOAMS); 10) Advanced Transportable Optical Tracking System (ATOTS); 11) STS-114 Pad Fixed Tracker Camera Configuration; 12) STS-114 Camera Medium and Long Range Tracker Configuration; 13) WB-57 Ascent Visualization Experiment (WAVE); 14) WAVE Profile, Plan View, CAD Flight Training, and Test Flight; 15) Minimum STS-114 Flight Cameras Configuration; 16) External Tank (ET) Separation Cameras; 17) ET Imagery; Umbilical and Handheld; 18) On-Orbit Imagery; and 19) Imagery Data Distribution Plan. The presentation ends with a brief question and answer period.

Source record↗
NASA NTRS2015

Swarm Flyby Gravimetry

This study describes a new technology for discerning the gravity fields and mass distribution of a solar system small body, without requiring dedicated orbiters or landers. Instead of a lander, a spacecraft releases a collection of small, simple probes during a flyby past an asteroid or comet. By tracking those probes from the host spacecraft, one can estimate the asteroid's gravity field and infer its underlying composition and structure. This approach offers a diverse measurement set,equivalent to planning and executing many independent and unique flyby encounters of a single spacecraft. This report assesses a feasible hardware implementation, derives the underlying models,and analyzes the performance of this concept via simulation.In terms of hardware, a small, low mass, low cost implementation is presented, which consists of a dispenser and probes. The dispenser contains roughly 12 probes in a tube and has a total size commensurate with a 6U P-Pod. The probes are housed in disc shaped sabots. When commanded,the dispenser ejects the top-most probe using a linear motor. The ejected probe separates from its sabots and unfolds using internal springs. There are two types of probes, each designed for a particular tracking modality. The reflective probe type, tracked by a telescope, unfolds to forma diffusely reflective sphere. The retroreflector probe type, tracked by a lidar, unfolds to form a corner-cube retroreflector assembly. Both types are designed to spherical so that their attitude doesn't affect the spacecraft's tracking performance.This analysis indicates that the point-mass term of small bodies larger than roughly 500 m in diameter can be observed from a host spacecraft that tracks locally deployed probes throughout a flyby to an uncertainty of better than 5%. The conditions by which this measurement is possible depends on the characteristics of the asteroid (size, type), the flyby velocity, and the type of tracking available (angles-only or angles+ranging). For most encounters, a few (1-3) well placed probes can be very effective, with marginal improvement for additional probes. Given realistic deployment errors, an encounter may require roughly 10-12 probes to ensure that 1-3 achieve their target. Long duration tracking of probes flying by large asteroids (>5 km diameter) can sometimes provide observability of the gravity field's first spherical harmonic, J( sub 2). In summary, this method offers a feasible, affordable approach to enabling or augmenting flyby science.

Atchison, Justin↗
NASA NTRSDate not supplied

Using Open Standards and NASA Open Source Simulation Tools to Model Artemis Base Camp Mission Timelines

The United States’ National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) has announced that the Artemis Program will return humans to the Moon, establishing a persistent presence with the Artemis Base Camp (ABC), and extend human exploration to Mars. The NASA Exploration Systems Simulations (NExSyS) team at NASA’s Johnson Space Center is using internationally developed simulation interoperability standards and NASA open source simulation tools to support Artemis concept, analysis, designs, development, training, and ultimately operations. The NExSyS team has been tasked to support early ABC architecture and mission analysis using mission time lines developed by the crew operations mission planning team. The NExSyS team is developing a distributed simulation framework with initial Artemis element implementations to model the ABC mission timelines using the international simulation interoperability standard High Level Architecture (HLA), the Simulation Interoperability Standards Organization’s Space Reference Federation Object Model (SpaceFOM), the NASA open source Trick Simulation Environment, and another NASA open source interface package called TrickHLA. The ABC architecture is composed of a number of key surface elements and resources. Some examples of modeled elements (also known as entities) are landers, habitats, rovers, logistics carriers, and astronauts. Some examples of modeled transferable and consumable resources are power, water, oxygen, nitrogen, scientific samples, and food. These entities and resources are modeled in a collection of individual simulations called Federates. A coordinated collection of interoperable federates is called a Federation and when these federates are tied together in a coordinated simulation run, it is referred to as a Federation Execution. The federates communicate through HLA using data exchange formats defined by a collection of machine readable files called Federation Object Models (FOMs). These FOM files are based on extensions to the SpaceFOM. This enables the instantiation and sharing of objects and interactions between federates in the federation. These provide for entity and resource tracking, object transfer, and data collection. Federate interactions are used to trigger events and notify federates of entity or resource transfers. For the initial implementation, the constituent federates are Trick-based simulations that use TrickHLA to provide the required HLA-base interoperability. These Trick-based simulations provide the required modeling for the individual Artemis elements along with the associated element resources. These federates provide a means to explore traverses between surface elements and exploration sites as scheduled in a mission timeline and explore the affects traverse times have on the overall mission timeline. The mission time lines are modeled using a Trick input file event handling capabilities. Each timeline operation is handled as individual simulation events, and triggered based on previous event status, time of operation, and simulated task completions. In addition, the ABC Federation can be used to perform Monte Carlo analysis. The Monte Carlo tool can vary the inputs, timings, and malfunctions to show how various contingencies in the mission can affect the mission timeline.

Keaton Craig Dodd↗
NASA NTRS1985

Extended atmospheres of outer planet satellites and comets

Model analysis of the extended atmospheres of outer planet satellites and comets are discussed. Understanding the neutral hydrogen distribution in the Saturn system concentrated on assessing the spatial dependence of the lifetime of hydrogen atoms and on obtaining appropriately sorted Lyman ALPHA data from the Voyager 1 UVS instrument. Progress in the area of the extended cometary atmospheres included analysis of Pioneer Venus Layman alpha observations of Comet P/Encke with the fully refined hydrogen cloud model, development of the basic carbon and oxygen models, and planning for the Pioneer Venus UVS observations of Comets P/Giacobini-Zinner and P/Halley.

Smyth, W. H.↗
NASA NTRS1990

Discharge transient coupling in large space power systems

Experiments have shown that plasma environments can induce discharges in solar arrays. These plasmas simulate the environments found in low earth orbits where current plans call for operation of very large power systems. The discharges could be large enough to couple into the power system and possibly disrupt operations. Here, the general concepts of the discharge mechanism and the techniques of coupling are discussed. Data from both ground and flight experiments are reviewed to obtain an expected basis for the interactions. These concepts were applied to the Space Station solar array and distribution system as an example of the large space power system. The effect of discharges was found to be a function of the discharge site. For most sites in the array discharges would not seriously impact performance. One location at the negative end of the array was identified as a position where discharges could couple to charge stored in system capacitors. This latter case could impact performance.

Stevens, N. John↗
NASA NTRS1990

NASA-UCLA Workshop on Computational Techniques in Identification and Control of Flexible Flight Structures, Lake Arrowhead, CA, Nov. 2-4, 1989, Proceedings

The present conference on the identification and control of flexible flight structures with computational techniques encompasses existing and planned testbeds, modeling techniques, adaptive control, and numerical computation and simulation. Specific issues addressed include the NASA/MFSC ground test facility, an active control test on the NASA Minimast, the Astrex testbed for large precision space structures, the dynamic analysis of truss-beam modeling, combined structure-controls-integrated optimization, distributed parameter modeling applicable to the control of flexible flight structures, and approaches to nonclassically damped dynamic systems. Also addressed are adaptive control concepts, techniques for vibration and decentralized slew maneuver control, the discretization of second-order-in-time differential equations which are applicable to nonlinear wave problems, the finite-dimensional approximations of Riccati equations, and numerical simulations of actively controlled space structures.

Balakrishnan, A. V.↗
NASA NTRS2005

Modeling Atmospheric CO2 Processes to Constrain the Missing Sink

We report on a NASA supported modeling effort to reduce uncertainty in carbon cycle processes that create the so-called missing sink of atmospheric CO2. Our overall objective is to improve characterization of CO2 source/sink processes globally with improved formulations for atmospheric transport, terrestrial uptake and release, biomass and fossil fuel burning, and observational data analysis. The motivation for this study follows from the perspective that progress in determining CO2 sources and sinks beyond the current state of the art will rely on utilization of more extensive and intensive CO2 and related observations including those from satellite remote sensing. The major components of this effort are: 1) Continued development of the chemistry and transport model using analyzed meteorological fields from the Goddard Global Modeling and Assimilation Office, with comparison to real time data in both forward and inverse modes; 2) An advanced biosphere model, constrained by remote sensing data, coupled to the global transport model to produce distributions of CO2 fluxes and concentrations that are consistent with actual meteorological variability; 3) Improved remote sensing estimates for biomass burning emission fluxes to better characterize interannual variability in the atmospheric CO2 budget and to better constrain the land use change source; 4) Evaluating the impact of temporally resolved fossil fuel emission distributions on atmospheric CO2 gradients and variability. 5) Testing the impact of existing and planned remote sensing data sources (e.g., AIRS, MODIS, OCO) on inference of CO2 sources and sinks, and use the model to help establish measurement requirements for future remote sensing instruments. The results will help to prepare for the use of OCO and other satellite data in a multi-disciplinary carbon data assimilation system for analysis and prediction of carbon cycle changes and carbodclimate interactions.

Kawa, S. R.↗