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537 records · Page 30
All sourcesNASA NTRSDOE OSTI
DOE OSTI2015

A GPU based high-resolution multilevel biomechanical head and neck model for validating deformable image registration

Purpose: Validating the usage of deformable image registration (DIR) for daily patient positioning is critical for adaptive radiotherapy (RT) applications pertaining to head and neck (HN) radiotherapy. The authors present a methodology for generating biomechanically realistic ground-truth data for validating DIR algorithms for HN anatomy by (a) developing a high-resolution deformable biomechanical HN model from a planning CT, (b) simulating deformations for a range of interfraction posture changes and physiological regression, and (c) generating subsequent CT images representing the deformed anatomy. Methods: The biomechanical model was developed using HN kVCT datasets and the corresponding structure contours. The voxels inside a given 3D contour boundary were clustered using a graphics processing unit (GPU) based algorithm that accounted for inconsistencies and gaps in the boundary to form a volumetric structure. While the bony anatomy was modeled as rigid body, the muscle and soft tissue structures were modeled as mass–spring-damper models with elastic material properties that corresponded to the underlying contoured anatomies. Within a given muscle structure, the voxels were classified using a uniform grid and a normalized mass was assigned to each voxel based on its Hounsfield number. The soft tissue deformation for a given skeletal actuation was performed using an implicit Euler integration with each iteration split into two substeps: one for the muscle structures and the other for the remaining soft tissues. Posture changes were simulated by articulating the skeletal structure and enabling the soft structures to deform accordingly. Physiological changes representing tumor regression were simulated by reducing the target volume and enabling the surrounding soft structures to deform accordingly. Finally, the authors also discuss a new approach to generate kVCT images representing the deformed anatomy that accounts for gaps and antialiasing artifacts that may be caused by the biomechanical deformation process. Accuracy and stability of the model response were validated using ground-truth simulations representing soft tissue behavior under local and global deformations. Numerical accuracy of the HN deformations was analyzed by applying nonrigid skeletal transformations acquired from interfraction kVCT images to the model’s skeletal structures and comparing the subsequent soft tissue deformations of the model with the clinical anatomy. Results: The GPU based framework enabled the model deformation to be performed at 60 frames/s, facilitating simulations of posture changes and physiological regressions at interactive speeds. The soft tissue response was accurate with a R{sup 2} value of >0.98 when compared to ground-truth global and local force deformation analysis. The deformation of the HN anatomy by the model agreed with the clinically observed deformations with an average correlation coefficient of 0.956. For a clinically relevant range of posture and physiological changes, the model deformations stabilized with an uncertainty of less than 0.01 mm. Conclusions: Documenting dose delivery for HN radiotherapy is essential accounting for posture and physiological changes. The biomechanical model discussed in this paper was able to deform in real-time, allowing interactive simulations and visualization of such changes. The model would allow patient specific validations of the DIR method and has the potential to be a significant aid in adaptive radiotherapy techniques.

60 APPLIED LIFE SCIENCES↗
DOE OSTI2014

Feature-space assessment of electrical impedance tomography coregistered with computed tomography in detecting multiple contrast targets

Purpose: Fusion of electrical impedance tomography (EIT) with computed tomography (CT) can be useful as a clinical tool for providing additional physiological information about tissues, but requires suitable fusion algorithms and validation procedures. This work explores the feasibility of fusing EIT and CT images using an algorithm for coregistration. The imaging performance is validated through feature space assessment on phantom contrast targets. Methods: EIT data were acquired by scanning a phantom using a circuit, configured for injecting current through 16 electrodes, placed around the phantom. A conductivity image of the phantom was obtained from the data using electrical impedance and diffuse optical tomography reconstruction software (EIDORS). A CT image of the phantom was also acquired. The EIT and CT images were fused using a region of interest (ROI) coregistration fusion algorithm. Phantom imaging experiments were carried out on objects of different contrasts, sizes, and positions. The conductive medium of the phantoms was made of a tissue-mimicking bolus material that is routinely used in clinical radiation therapy settings. To validate the imaging performance in detecting different contrasts, the ROI of the phantom was filled with distilled water and normal saline. Spatially separated cylindrical objects of different sizes were used for validating the imaging performance in multiple target detection. Analyses of the CT, EIT and the EIT/CT phantom images were carried out based on the variations of contrast, correlation, energy, and homogeneity, using a gray level co-occurrence matrix (GLCM). A reference image of the phantom was simulated using EIDORS, and the performances of the CT and EIT imaging systems were evaluated and compared against the performance of the EIT/CT system using various feature metrics, detectability, and structural similarity index measures. Results: In detecting distilled and normal saline water in bolus medium, EIT as a stand-alone imaging system showed contrast discrimination of 47%, while the CT imaging system showed a discrimination of only 1.5%. The structural similarity index measure showed a drop of 24% with EIT imaging compared to CT imaging. The average detectability measure for CT imaging was found to be 2.375 ± 0.19 before fusion. After complementing with EIT information, the detectability measure increased to 11.06 ± 2.04. Based on the feature metrics, the functional imaging quality of CT and EIT were found to be 2.29% and 86%, respectively, before fusion. Structural imaging quality was found to be 66% for CT and 16% for EIT. After fusion, functional imaging quality improved in CT imaging from 2.29% to 42% and the structural imaging quality of EIT imaging changed from 16% to 66%. The improvement in image quality was also observed in detecting objects of different sizes. Conclusions: The authors found a significant improvement in the contrast detectability performance of CT imaging when complemented with functional imaging information from EIT. Along with the feature assessment metrics, the concept of complementing CT with EIT imaging can lead to an EIT/CT imaging modality which might fully utilize the functional imaging abilities of EIT imaging, thereby enhancing the quality of care in the areas of cancer diagnosis and radiotherapy treatment planning.

62 RADIOLOGY AND NUCLEAR MEDICINE↗
DOE OSTI2012

A novel methodology for 3D deformable dosimetry

Purpose: Interfraction and intrafraction variation in anatomic structures is a significant challenge in contemporary radiotherapy. The objective of this work is to develop a novel tool for deformable structure dosimetry, using a tissue-equivalent deformable gel dosimeter that can reproducibly simulate targets subject to deformation. This will enable direct measurement of integrated doses delivered in different deformation states, and the verification of dose deforming algorithms. Methods: A modified version of the nPAG polymer gel has been used as a deformable 3D dosimeter and phantom to investigate doses delivered to deforming tissue-equivalent geometry. The deformable gel (DEFGEL) dosimeter/phantom is comprised of polymer gel in a latex membrane, moulded (in this case) into a cylindrical geometry, and deformed with an acrylic compressor. Fifteen aluminium fiducial markers (FM) were implanted into DEFGEL phantoms and the reproducibility of deformation was determined via multiple computed tomography (CT) scans in deformed and nondeformed states before and after multiple (up to 150) deformations. Dose was delivered to the DEFGEL phantom in three arrangements: (i) without deformation, (ii) with deformation, and (iii) cumulative exposures with and without deformation, i.e., dose integration. Irradiations included both square field and a stereotactic multiple dynamic arc treatment adapted from a patient plan. Doses delivered to the DEFGEL phantom were read out using cone beam optical CT. Results: Reproducibility was verified by observation of interscan shifts of FM locations (as determined via CT), measured from an absolute reference point and in terms of inter-FM distance. The majority (76%) of points exhibited zero shift, with others shifting by one pixel size consistent with setup error as confirmed with a control sample. Comparison of dose profiles and 2D isodose distributions from the three arrangements illustrated complex spatial redistribution of dose in all three dimensions occurring as a result of the change in shape of the target between irradiations, even for a relatively simple deformation. Discrepancies of up to 30% of the maximum dose were evident from dose difference maps for three orthogonal planes taken through the isocenter of a stereotactic field. Conclusions: This paper describes the first use of a tissue-equivalent, 3D dose-integrating deformable phantom that yields integrated or redistributed dosimetric information. The proposed methodology readily yields three-dimensional (3D) dosimetric data from radiation delivery to the DEFGEL phantom in deformed and undeformed states. The impacts of deformation on dose distributions were readily seen in the isodose contours and line profiles from the three arrangements. It is demonstrated that the system is potentially capable of reproducibly emulating the physical deformation of an organ, and therefore can be used to evaluate absorbed doses to deformable targets and organs at risk in three dimensions and to validate deformation algorithms applied to dose distributions.

61 RADIATION PROTECTION AND DOSIMETRY↗
DOE OSTI2013

Commissioning dose computation models for spot scanning proton beams in water for a commercially available treatment planning system

Purpose: To present our method and experience in commissioning dose models in water for spot scanning proton therapy in a commercial treatment planning system (TPS). Methods: The input data required by the TPS included in-air transverse profiles and integral depth doses (IDDs). All input data were obtained from Monte Carlo (MC) simulations that had been validated by measurements. MC-generated IDDs were converted to units of Gy mm{sup 2}/MU using the measured IDDs at a depth of 2 cm employing the largest commercially available parallel-plate ionization chamber. The sensitive area of the chamber was insufficient to fully encompass the entire lateral dose deposited at depth by a pencil beam (spot). To correct for the detector size, correction factors as a function of proton energy were defined and determined using MC. The fluence of individual spots was initially modeled as a single Gaussian (SG) function and later as a double Gaussian (DG) function. The DG fluence model was introduced to account for the spot fluence due to contributions of large angle scattering from the devices within the scanning nozzle, especially from the spot profile monitor. To validate the DG fluence model, we compared calculations and measurements, including doses at the center of spread out Bragg peaks (SOBPs) as a function of nominal field size, range, and SOBP width, lateral dose profiles, and depth doses for different widths of SOBP. Dose models were validated extensively with patient treatment field-specific measurements. Results: We demonstrated that the DG fluence model is necessary for predicting the field size dependence of dose distributions. With this model, the calculated doses at the center of SOBPs as a function of nominal field size, range, and SOBP width, lateral dose profiles and depth doses for rectangular target volumes agreed well with respective measured values. With the DG fluence model for our scanning proton beam line, we successfully treated more than 500 patients from March 2010 through June 2012 with acceptable agreement between TPS calculated and measured dose distributions. However, the current dose model still has limitations in predicting field size dependence of doses at some intermediate depths of proton beams with high energies. Conclusions: We have commissioned a DG fluence model for clinical use. It is demonstrated that the DG fluence model is significantly more accurate than the SG fluence model. However, some deficiencies in modeling the low-dose envelope in the current dose algorithm still exist. Further improvements to the current dose algorithm are needed. The method presented here should be useful for commissioning pencil beam dose algorithms in new versions of TPS in the future.

60 APPLIED LIFE SCIENCES↗
DOE OSTI2025

Modeling inter‐reader variability in clinical target volume delineation for soft tissue sarcomas using diffusion model

Abstract Background Accurate delineation of the clinical target volume (CTV) is essential in the radiotherapy treatment of soft tissue sarcomas. However, this process is subject to inter‐reader variability due to the need for clinical assessment of risk and extent of potential microscopic spread. This can lead to inconsistencies in treatment planning, potentially impacting treatment outcomes. Most existing automatic CTV delineation methods do not account for this variability and can only generate a single CTV for each case. Purpose This study aims to develop a deep learning‐based technique to generate multiple CTV contours for each case, simulating the inter‐reader variability in the clinical practice. Methods We employed a publicly available dataset consisting of fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography (FDG‐PET), x‐ray computed tomography (CT), and pre‐contrast T1‐weighted magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scans from 51 patients with soft tissue sarcoma, along with an independent validation set containing five additional patients. An experienced reader drew a contour of the gross tumor volume (GTV) for each patient based on multi‐modality images. Subsequently, two additional readers, together with the first one, were responsible for contouring three CTVs in total based on the GTV. We developed a diffusion model‐based deep learning method that is capable of generating arbitrary number of different and plausible CTVs to mimic the inter‐reader variability in CTV delineation. The proposed model incorporates a separate encoder to extract features from the GTV masks, leveraging the critical role of GTV information in accurate CTV delineation. Results The proposed diffusion model demonstrated superior performance with the highest Dice Index (0.902 compared to values below 0.881 for state‐of‐the‐art models) and the best generalized energy distance (GED) (0.209 compared to values exceeding 0.221 for state‐of‐the‐art models). It also achieved the second‐highest recall and precision metrics among the compared ambiguous image segmentation models. Results from both datasets exhibited consistent trends, reinforcing the reliability of our findings. Additionally, ablation studies exploring different model structures and input configurations highlighted the significance of incorporating prior GTV information for accurate CTV delineation. Conclusions The proposed diffusion model successfully generates multiple plausible CTV contours for soft tissue sarcomas, effectively capturing inter‐reader variability in CTV delineation.

Dong, Yafei [Yale Biomedical Imaging Institute Yal↗
DOE OSTI2013

A further investigation of the centroid-to-centroid method for stereotactic lung radiotherapy: A phantom study

Purpose: Our previous study [B. Lu et al., “A patient alignment solution for lung SBRT setups based on a deformable registration technique,” Med. Phys. 39(12), 7379–7389 (2012)] proposed a deformable-registration-based patient setup strategy called the centroid-to-centroid (CTC) method, which can perform an accurate alignment of internal-target-volume (ITV) centroids between averaged four-dimensional computed tomography and cone-beam computed tomography (CBCT) images. Scenarios with variations between CBCT and simulation CT caused by irregular breathing and/or tumor change were not specifically considered in the patient study [B. Lu et al., “A patient alignment solution for lung SBRT setups based on a deformable registration technique,” Med. Phys. 39(12), 7379–7389 (2012)] due to the lack of both a sufficiently large patient data sample and a method of tumor tracking. The aim of this study is to thoroughly investigate and compare the impacts of breathing pattern and tumor change on both the CTC and the translation-only (T-only) gray-value mode strategies by employing a four-dimensional (4D) lung phantom.Methods: A sophisticated anthropomorphic 4D phantom (CIRS Dynamic Thorax Phantom model 008) was employed to simulate all desired respiratory variations. The variation scenarios were classified into four groups: inspiration to expiration ratio (IE ratio) change, tumor trajectory change, tumor position change, tumor size change, and the combination of these changes. For each category the authors designed several scenarios to demonstrate the effects of different levels of breathing variation on both of the T-only and the CTC methods. Each scenario utilized 4DCT and CBCT scans. The ITV centroid alignment discrepancies for CTC and T-only were evaluated. The dose-volume-histograms (DVHs) of ITVs for two extreme cases were analyzed.Results: Except for some extreme cases in the combined group, the accuracy of the CTC registration was about 2 mm for all cases for both the single and the combined scenarios. The performance of the CTC method was insensitive to region-of-registration (ROR) size selections, as suggested by the comparable accuracy between 1 and 2 cm expansions of the ROR selections for the method. The T-only method was suitable for some single scenarios, such as trajectory variation, position variation, and size variation. However, for combined scenarios and/or a large variation in the IE ratio, the T-only method failed to produce reasonable registration results (within 3 mm). The discrepancy was close to, or even greater than, 1 cm. In addition, unlike the CTC method, the T-only method was sensitive to the ROR size selection. The DVH analysis suggested that a large ITV to PTV margin should be considered if a breathing pattern variation is observed.Conclusions: The phantom study demonstrated that the CTC method was reliable for scenarios in which breathing pattern variation was involved. The T-only gray value method worked for some scenarios, but not for scenarios that involved an IE ratio variation. For scenarios involving position variation, the T-only method worked only with a careful selection of the ROR, whereas the CTC method was independent of ROR size as long as the ITVs were included in the ROR. One indication of the dose consequence analysis was that a large ITV to PTV margin should be considered if a breathing pattern variation is observed.

62 RADIOLOGY AND NUCLEAR MEDICINE↗
DOE OSTI2011

Optimization of phosphor-based detector design for oblique x-ray incidence in digital breast tomosynthesis

Purpose: In digital breast tomosynthesis (DBT), a volumetric reconstruction of the breast is generated from a limited range of x-ray projections. One trade-off of DBT is resolution loss in the projections due to non-normal (i.e., oblique) x-ray incidence. Although degradation in image quality due to oblique incidence has been studied using empirical data and Monte Carlo simulations, a theoretical treatment has been lacking. The purpose of this work is to extend Swank's calculations of the transfer functions of turbid granular phosphors to oblique incidence. The model is ultimately used as a tool for optimizing the design of DBT detectors. Methods: A quantum-limited system and 20 keV x-rays are considered. Under these assumptions, the modulation transfer function (MTF) and noise power spectra (NPS) are derived using the diffusion approximation to the Boltzmann equation to model optical scatter within the phosphor. This approach is applicable to a nonstructured scintillator such as gadolinium oxysulfide doped with terbium (Gd{sub 2}O{sub 2}S:Tb), which is commonly used in breast imaging and which can reasonably approximate other detector materials. The detective quantum efficiency (DQE) is then determined from the Nishikawa formulation, where it is written as the product of the x-ray quantum detection efficiency, the Swank factor, and the Lubberts fraction. Transfer functions are calculated for both front- and back-screen configurations, which differ by positioning the photocathode at the exit or entrance point of the x-ray beam, respectively. Results: In the front-screen configuration, MTF and DQE are found to have considerable angular dependence, while NPS is shown to vary minimally with projection angle. As expected, the high frequency MTF and DQE are degraded substantially at large angles. By contrast, all transfer functions for the back-screen configuration have the advantage of significantly less angular dependence. Using these models, we investigated the possibility for optimizing the design of DBT detectors. As an example optimization strategy, the phosphor thickness which maximizes the DQE at a fixed frequency is analyzed. This work demonstrates that the optimal phosphor thickness for the front-screen is angularly dependent, shifting to lower thickness at higher angles. Conversely, the back-screen is not optimized by a single thickness but instead attains reasonably high DQE values over a large range of thicknesses. Although the back-screen configuration is not suited for current detectors using a glass substrate, it may prove to be preferred in future detectors using newly proposed plastic thin-film transistor (TFT) substrates. Conclusions: Using the diffusion approximation to the Boltzmann equation to model the spread of light in a scintillator, this paper develops an analytical model of MTF, NPS, and DQE for a phosphor irradiated obliquely. The model is set apart from other studies on oblique incidence in being derived from first principles. This work has applications in the optimization of DBT detector design.

46 INSTRUMENTATION RELATED TO NUCLEAR SCIENCE AND ↗
DOE OSTI2012

Clinical evaluation of a commercial orthopedic metal artifact reduction tool for CT simulations in radiation therapy

Purpose: Severe artifacts in kilovoltage-CT simulation images caused by large metallic implants can significantly degrade the conspicuity and apparent CT Hounsfield number of targets and anatomic structures, jeopardize the confidence of anatomical segmentation, and introduce inaccuracies into the radiation therapy treatment planning process. This study evaluated the performance of the first commercial orthopedic metal artifact reduction function (O-MAR) for radiation therapy, and investigated its clinical applications in treatment planning. Methods: Both phantom and clinical data were used for the evaluation. The CIRS electron density phantom with known physical (and electron) density plugs and removable titanium implants was scanned on a Philips Brilliance Big Bore 16-slice CT simulator. The CT Hounsfield numbers of density plugs on both uncorrected and O-MAR corrected images were compared. Treatment planning accuracy was evaluated by comparing simulated dose distributions computed using the true density images, uncorrected images, and O-MAR corrected images. Ten CT image sets of patients with large hip implants were processed with the O-MAR function and evaluated by two radiation oncologists using a five-point score for overall image quality, anatomical conspicuity, and CT Hounsfield number accuracy. By utilizing the same structure contours delineated from the O-MAR corrected images, clinical IMRT treatment plans for five patients were computed on the uncorrected and O-MAR corrected images, respectively, and compared. Results: Results of the phantom study indicated that CT Hounsfield number accuracy and noise were improved on the O-MAR corrected images, especially for images with bilateral metal implants. The {gamma} pass rates of the simulated dose distributions computed on the uncorrected and O-MAR corrected images referenced to those of the true densities were higher than 99.9% (even when using 1% and 3 mm distance-to-agreement criterion), suggesting that dose distributions were clinically identical. In all patient cases, radiation oncologists rated O-MAR corrected images as higher quality. Formerly obscured critical structures were able to be visualized. The overall image quality and the conspicuity in critical organs were significantly improved compared with the uncorrected images: overall quality score (1.35 vs 3.25, P= 0.0022); bladder (2.15 vs 3.7, P= 0.0023); prostate and seminal vesicles/vagina (1.3 vs 3.275, P= 0.0020); rectum (2.8 vs 3.9, P= 0.0021). The noise levels of the selected ROIs were reduced from 93.7 to 38.2 HU. On most cases (8/10), the average CT Hounsfield numbers of the prostate/vagina on the O-MAR corrected images were closer to the referenced value (41.2 HU, an average measured from patients without metal implants) than those on the uncorrected images. High {gamma} pass rates of the five IMRT dose distribution pairs indicated that the dose distributions were not significantly affected by the CT image improvements. Conclusions: Overall, this study indicated that the O-MAR function can remarkably reduce metal artifacts and improve both CT Hounsfield number accuracy and target and critical structure visualization. Although there was no significant impact of the O-MAR algorithm on the calculated dose distributions, we suggest that O-MAR corrected images are more suitable for the entire treatment planning process by offering better anatomical structure visualization, improving radiation oncologists' confidence in target delineation, and by avoiding subjective density overrides of artifact regions on uncorrected images.

61 RADIATION PROTECTION AND DOSIMETRY↗
DOE OSTI2012

Study of the secondary neutral radiation in proton therapy: Toward an indirect in vivo dosimetry

Purpose: Secondary particles produced in the collision of protons with beam modifiers are of concern in proton therapy. Nevertheless, secondary radiation can provide information on the dosimetric parameters through its dependency on the modulating accessories (range shifter and range modulating wheel). Relatively little data have been reported in the literature for low-energy proton beams. The present study aims at characterizing the neutron and photon secondary radiation at the low-energy proton therapy facility of the Centre Antoine Lacassagne (CAL), and studying their correlation to the dosimetric parameters to explore possible practical uses of secondary radiation in the treatment quality for proton therapy. Methods: The Monte Carlo code MCNPX was used to simulate the proton therapy facility at CAL. Neutron and photon fluence, {Phi}, and ambient dose equivalent per proton dose, H*(10)/D, were determined across the horizontal main plane spanning the whole treatment room. H*(10)/D was also calculated at two positions of the treatment room where dosimetric measurements were performed for validation of the Monte Carlo calculations. Calculations and measurements were extended to 100 clinical spread-out Bragg Peaks (SOBPs) covering the whole range of therapeutic dose rates (D/MU) employed at CAL. In addition, the values of D and MU were also calculated for each SOBP and the results analyzed to study the relationship between secondary radiation and dosimetric parameters. Results: The largest production of the secondary particles takes place at the modulating devices and the brass collimators located along the optical bench. Along the beam line and off the beam axis to 2.5 m away, H*(10)/D values ranged from 5.4 {mu}Sv/Gy to 5.3 mSv/Gy for neutrons, and were 1 order of magnitude lower for photons. H*(10)/D varied greatly with the distance and angle to the beam axis. A variation of a factor of 5 was found for the different range of modulations (SOBPs). The ratios between calculations and measurements were 2.3 and 0.5 for neutrons and photons, respectively, and remained constant for all the range of SOBPs studied, which provided validation for the Monte Carlo calculations. H*(10)/D values were found to correlate to the proton dose rate D/MU with a power fit, both for neutrons and photons. This result was exploited to implement a system to obtain D/MU values from the measurement of the integrated photon ambient dose equivalent H*(10) during treatment, which provides a method to control the dosimetric parameters D/MU and D. Conclusions: The treatment room at CAL is moderately polluted by secondary particles. The constant ratio between measurements and calculations for all SOBPs showed that simulations correctly predict the dosimetric parameters and the dependence of the production of secondary particles on the modulation. The correlation between H*(10)/D and D/MU is a useful tool for quality control and is currently used at CAL. This system works as an indirect in vivo dosimetry method, which is so far not feasible in proton therapy. This tool requires very simple instrumentation and can be implemented from the measurement of either photons or neutrons.

60 APPLIED LIFE SCIENCES↗
DOE OSTI2020

GIS-Based Modeling of Contaminated Soil Volumes at Multiple Sites in the Formerly Utilized Sites Remedial Action Program - 20149

The remediation of hazardous, toxic, and radioactive waste (HTRW) sites produces cost-related risks associated with the estimation of contaminated soil or debris volumes. Historical risk-management techniques include cost contingencies to cover volume uncertainties that affect project budgeting and decision-making. The Buffalo District teamed with project partners to lessen volume uncertainty and reduce project risks at multiple HTRW sites managed under the Formerly Utilized Sites Remedial Action Program (FUSRAP). Historical remedial investigations under FUSRAP commonly identified the presence of radiological material in site media, the associated human health risk, and then areas of remediation. To manage remedial execution and reduce risk, pre-design or remediation-phase sampling essentially 'chased' contamination, which was not conducive to efficient predictive budgeting derived from Feasibility Study (FS) cost analyses. The Buffalo District first optimized their approach to better understand volume uncertainty by utilizing the Argonne National Laboratory's Bayesian Approaches for Adaptive Spatial Sampling (BAASS) software [1]. BAASS processed soft data (e.g., gamma walk-over data) and spatial sampling data to estimate the lateral extent of contaminated soil irrespective of depth (i.e., gross contamination extent) and define areas of contaminant uncertainty. The software performed a binary transformation of contaminant concentrations at all sampling points based upon remedial action goals or a sum of ratios approach (i.e., clean, impacted, or range of impacts in soil). The model produced two-dimensional (horizontal) contaminant probability contours and statistical uncertainty in the sampling coverage and resulting contaminant extents. This method was translated vertically by partitioning the sampling data into depth brackets that produced a stacked representation of contaminant extents and uncertainty in the subsurface (i.e., similar to construction lifts). The results commonly led to a better understanding of project uncertainty and the need for sampling strategies that produce high-confidence soil volumes, which control costs. The BAASS-based delineations were eventually replaced by Empirical Bayesian Kriging (EBK) methods available in ArcGIS Spatial or 3D Analysts [2]. The EBK method calculates contaminant probability zones derived from user-controlled semivariograms of the spatial datasets. The resulting probability zones (e.g., 50% or 80% of contaminant probability) represent the two-dimensional surface delineation of the overall horizontal remedial area, similarly to BAASS. However, unlike BAASS, the vertical sampling data within these probability zones became vertical control points to contour a subterranean surface that connects subsurface points to the land-surface delineations of contamination. The resulting representation of horizontal and vertical impacts within an enclosed envelop (volume) of soil included uncertainty distributions that are used to plan uncertainty-reduction sampling. These data-driven and math-based models of three-dimensional sampling results produced well-bounded remedial volumes for project planning and better uncertainty predictions during project budgeting. The EBK method was applied to several FUSRAP sites managed by the Buffalo District and compared to less rigorously modeled sites previously remediated by the District. The comparison of modeled to actual remediated volumes provide a basis for validating the volume-estimation method. This comparison is important to ensure modeled volumes match physical boundaries of site remediation. FUSRAP sites with denser investigative sampling and lesser volume uncertainty proved useful in remedial planning and contracting. The Buffalo District noted that historical sites with sparser sampling arrays had greater disparity between estimated volumes and final remedial volumes. The benefit achieved over the cost of detailed soil sampling appears positive for FUSRAP projects, especially where impacts vary widely and appear unbounded by investigation-phase sampling. The subsequent Empirical Bayesian Kriging of contamination coupled with vertical contouring for soil estimations reduces uncertainty in soil volumes or indicates where sampling is required to reduce uncertainty, which together optimize remedial planning and budgeting. (authors)

12 MANAGEMENT OF RADIOACTIVE AND NON-RADIOACTIVE W↗
DOE OSTI2015

Characterization of the Uranium-Bearing Products of the Ammonia Injection Remediation Method - 15707

Commissioned in 1943, the Hanford Site is the home of the world's first full-scale nuclear production facility. After more than 40 years of processing, improper discharge and failed storage tanks have resulted in the contamination of the Hanford vadose zone with radiologically contaminated waste. Remediation methods considered for the area include sequestration of the mobile uranium by injection of ammonia (NH{sub 3}) gas. Injection of this reactive gas increases the pore water pH, promoting the dissolution of soil minerals; a subsequent re-establishment of natural conditions is believed to result in the recrystallization of those soil minerals and the co-precipitation of uranium phases. Characterization of the precipitates formed when the ammonia (NH{sub 3}) injection method, proposed for the Hanford vadose zone, is applied to synthetic pore water on a laboratory scale. This involves: Identification of the uranium-bearing phases; A study of the effect of pore water constitution on the phases produced. Synthetic pore water solutions were prepared to mimic selected constituents of the pore water from the Hanford 200 Area: Varying constituent concentrations; Observations led to modifications to increase relative uranium content: 200 ppm → 500 ppm U; Substituted sodium silicate for silicic acid. Dried samples were analyzed by SEM-EDS and powder X-ray diffraction (XRD). A suspension in ethanol was prepared and analyzed by Transmission Electron Microscope (TEM) with Selective Area Electron Diffraction (SAED). Studied and applied geochemical modeling software (Visual Minteq and Geo-chemist's Workbench) for speciation and prediction of potential species formed. Discussion/Conclusions: - SEM-EDS Analysis: Scanning electron microscopy revealed areas of high average atomic weight which would be confirmed to be uranium-rich by energy dispersive spectroscopy analysis. The samples prepared with a more than two-fold increase in uranium concentration did not show the crystal-like forms spotted in the lower [U] samples. The samples prepared with silicic acid substituted in showed little to no uranium precipitation [not shown]. - Diffraction Analysis: Powder XRD analysis of the low [U] samples confirmed the presence of repeating crystalline patterns in the precipitate samples. Nitratine (NaNO{sub 3}) showed a massive presence, potentially obscuring significant peaks in the low [U] samples. Though it was not predicted, there was a tentative match for cejkaite (Na{sub 4}(UO{sub 2})(CO{sub 3}){sub 3}). Elevated uranium samples showed none of the needle-like crystalline shapes [diffraction data pending]. TEM - SAED confirmed the presence of a polycrystalline phase. Data analysis is complex but a comparison of average d-spacings with those of reference minerals could further support a match with cejkaite. - Geochemical Modeling: The system conditions were input into geochemical modeling software to predict the forms present throughout the reaction process. The model was used to demonstrate that the pH of the system could be increased using [NH{sub 4}{sup +}] in solution to better represent the system. Using the [NH{sub 4}{sup +}] increase, the changes in significant species with increasing pH were observed. Future Work: Repeat samples will be prepared and analyzed to bolster any potential identification. Promising samples will be submitted to the PNNL's EMSL facility, which is better equipped to perform the required analyses. An expanded study on the impact of carbonate (CO{sub 3}{sup 2-}) on the phases produced.

12 MANAGEMENT OF RADIOACTIVE AND NON-RADIOACTIVE W↗
DOE OSTI2013

Motion as a perturbation: Measurement-guided dose estimates to moving patient voxels during modulated arc deliveries

Purpose: To present a framework for measurement-guided VMAT dose reconstruction to moving patient voxels from a known motion kernel and the static phantom data, and to validate this perturbation-based approach with the proof-of-principle experiments. Methods: As described previously, the VMAT 3D dose to a static patient can be estimated by applying a phantom measurement-guided perturbation to the treatment planning system (TPS)-calculated dose grid. The fraction dose to any voxel in the presence of motion, assuming the motion kernel is known, can be derived in a similar fashion by applying a measurement-guided motion perturbation. The dose to the diodes in a helical phantom is recorded at 50 ms intervals and is transformed into a series of time-resolved high-density volumetric dose grids. A moving voxel is propagated through this 4D dose space and the fraction dose to that voxel in the phantom is accumulated. The ratio of this motion-perturbed, reconstructed dose to the TPS dose in the phantom serves as a perturbation factor, applied to the TPS fraction dose to the similarly situated voxel in the patient. This approach was validated by the ion chamber and film measurements on four phantoms of different shape and structure: homogeneous and inhomogeneous cylinders, a homogeneous cube, and an anthropomorphic thoracic phantom. A 2D motion stage was used to simulate the motion. The stage position was synchronized with the beam start time with the respiratory gating simulator. The motion patterns were designed such that the motion speed was in the upper range of the expected tumor motion (1-1.4 cm/s) and the range exceeded the normally observed limits (up to 5.7 cm). The conformal arc plans for X or Y motion (in the IEC 61217 coordinate system) consisted of manually created narrow (3 cm) rectangular strips moving in-phase (tracking) or phase-shifted by 90 Degree-Sign (crossing) with respect to the phantom motion. The XY motion was tested with the computer-derived VMAT MLC sequences. For all phantoms and plans, time-resolved (10 Hz) ion chamber dose was collected. In addition, coronal (XY) films were exposed in the cube phantom to a VMAT beam with two different starting phases, and compared to the reconstructed motion-perturbed dose planes. Results: For the X or Y motions with the moving strip and geometrical phantoms, the maximum difference between perturbation-reconstructed and ion chamber doses did not exceed 1.9%, and the average for any motion pattern/starting phase did not exceed 1.3%. For the VMAT plans on the cubic and thoracic phantoms, one point exhibited a 3.5% error, while the remaining five were all within 1.1%. Across all the measurements (N = 22), the average disagreement was 0.5 {+-} 1.3% (1 SD). The films exhibited {gamma}(3%/3 mm) passing rates {>=}90%. Conclusions: The dose to an arbitrary moving voxel in a patient can be estimated with acceptable accuracy for a VMAT delivery, by performing a single QA measurement with a cylindrical phantom and applying two consecutive perturbations to the TPS-calculated patient dose. The first one accounts for the differences between the planned and delivered static doses, while the second one corrects for the motion.

60 APPLIED LIFE SCIENCES↗
DOE OSTI2014

{sup 18}F-FLT uptake kinetics in head and neck squamous cell carcinoma: A PET imaging study

Purpose: To analyze the kinetics of 3{sup ′}-deoxy-3{sup ′}-[F-18]-fluorothymidine (18F-FLT) uptake by head and neck squamous cell carcinomas and involved nodes imaged using positron emission tomography (PET). Methods: Two- and three-tissue compartment models were fitted to 12 tumor time-activity-curves (TACs) obtained for 6 structures (tumors or involved nodes) imaged in ten dynamic PET studies of 1 h duration, carried out for five patients. The ability of the models to describe the data was assessed using a runs test, the Akaike information criterion (AIC) and leave-one-out cross-validation. To generate parametric maps the models were also fitted to TACs of individual voxels. Correlations between maps of different parameters were characterized using Pearson'sr coefficient; in particular the phosphorylation rate-constants k{sub 3-2tiss} and k{sub 5} of the two- and three-tissue models were studied alongside the flux parameters K{sub FLT-2tiss} and K{sub FLT} of these models, and standardized uptake values (SUV). A methodology based on expectation-maximization clustering and the Bayesian information criterion (“EM-BIC clustering”) was used to distil the information from noisy parametric images. Results: Fits of two-tissue models 2C3K and 2C4K and three-tissue models 3C5K and 3C6K comprising three, four, five, and six rate-constants, respectively, pass the runs test for 4, 8, 10, and 11 of 12 tumor TACs. The three-tissue models have lower AIC and cross-validation scores for nine of the 12 tumors. Overall the 3C6K model has the lowest AIC and cross-validation scores and its fitted parameter values are of the same orders of magnitude as literature estimates. Maps ofK{sub FLT} and K{sub FLT-2tiss} are strongly correlated (r = 0.85) and also correlate closely with SUV maps (r = 0.72 for K{sub FLT-2tiss}, 0.64 for K{sub FLT}). Phosphorylation rate-constant maps are moderately correlated with flux maps (r = 0.48 for k{sub 3-2tiss} vs K{sub FLT-2tiss} and r = 0.68 for k{sub 5} vs K{sub FLT}); however, neither phosphorylation rate-constant correlates significantly with SUV. EM-BIC clustering reduces the parametric maps to a small number of levels—on average 5.8, 3.5, 3.4, and 1.4 for K{sub FLT-2tiss}, K{sub FLT}, k{sub 3-2tiss}, and k{sub 5.} This large simplification is potentially useful for radiotherapy dose-painting, but demonstrates the high noise in some maps. Statistical simulations show that voxel level noise degrades TACs generated from the 3C6K model sufficiently that the average AIC score, parameter bias, and total uncertainty of 2C4K model fits are similar to those of 3C6K fits, whereas at the whole tumor level the scores are lower for 3C6K fits. Conclusions: For the patients studied here, whole tumor FLT uptake time-courses are represented better overall by a three-tissue than by a two-tissue model. EM-BIC clustering simplifies noisy parametric maps, providing the best description of the underlying information they contain and is potentially useful for radiotherapy dose-painting. However, the clustering highlights the large degree of noise present in maps of the phosphorylation rate-constantsk{sub 5} and k{sub 3-2tiss}, which are conceptually tightly linked to cellular proliferation. Methods must be found to make these maps more robust—either by constraining other model parameters or modifying dynamic imaging protocols.

62 RADIOLOGY AND NUCLEAR MEDICINE↗
DOE OSTI2019

Left ventricular ejection fraction determined with the simulation of a very low-dose CZT-SPECT protocol and an additional count-calibration on planar radionuclide angiographic data

Purpose: To determine whether the left ventricular ejection fractions (EFs), measured on a high-sensitivity CZT single photon emission computed tomography (SPECT)-camera with a 70% reduction in recording times and a prevention of EF overestimation through an additional count-calibration, are concordant with reference EF from planar radionuclide angiography (2D-RNA). Methods: An additional 10-minute CZT-SPECT recording was performed in patients referred to 2D-RNA for cardiomyopathy (n = 23) or chemotherapy monitoring (n = 50) with an in vivo red blood cell labeling with 850 MBq {sup 99m}TcO{sub 4}{sup −}. The EF, obtained from CZT-SPECT with 100% (SPECT100) or 30% (SPECT30) projection times and with a SPECT-count calibration on the 2D-RNA counts of corresponding cavity volumes, were compared to EF from 2D-RNA. Results: Strong and equivalent relationships were documented between the EF from 2D-RNA and the calibrated EF from SPECT100 (y = 0.89x + 6.62; R{sup 2} = 0.87) and SPECT30 (y = 0.87x + 8.40; R{sup 2} = 0.85), and the mean EF from SPECT100 (54% ± 15%) and SPECT30 (53% ± 16%) were close to that from 2D-RNA (55% ± 15%). However, upward shifts in these mean values were documented in the absence of count calibration for both SPECT100 (60% ± 18%) and SPECT30 (60% ± 18%). Conclusion: Left ventricular EF may be determined on a high-sensitivity CZT-camera, a 70% reduction in injected activities, and an additional count-calibration for further enhancing the concordance with 2D-RNA values. [French] French Abstract: Objectif: Déterminer si les fractions d'éjection ventriculaire gauche (EF) mesurées sur une caméra CZT SPECT à haute sensibilité avec une réduction de 70% des temps d'enregistrement et une prévention de la surestimation de l'EF grâce à un étalonnage supplémentaire des coups concordent avec les EF de référence obtenues par angiographie scintigraphique planaire (2D-RNA). Méthodes: Un enregistrement CZT-SPECT supplémentaire de 10 minutes a été réalisé chez les patients référés pour évaluation de cardiomyopathie (n=23) ou suivi de chimiothérapie (n = 50) par angiographie scintigraphique planaire (2D-RNA) au globules rouges marqués avec 850 MBq 99mTcO4-. Les EF, obtenues au moyen d’une caméra CZT-SPECT avec 100% (SPECT100) ou 30% (SPECT30) de temps d’acquisition et avec étalonnage des coups SPECT sur les images 2D-RNA des volumes de cavité correspondants ont été comparés aux EF à partir de 2D-RNA. Résultats: une corrélation significative existe entre les EF obtenues par 2D-RNA et les EF étalonnées obtenues par SPECT100 (y = 0,89x + 6,62; R2 = 0,87) et SPECT30 (y = 0,87x + 8,40; R2 = 0,85). Les EF moyennes de SPECT100 (54 ± 15%) et SPECT30 (53 ± 16%) sont similaires à celles obtenues par 2D-RNA (55 ± 15%). En l'absence d'étalonnage de comptage des études SPECT100 (60 ± 18%) et SPECT30 (60 ± 18%), ces valeurs moyennes d’EF sont généralement plus élevées. Conclusion: La fonction ventriculaire gauche peut être déterminée avec une caméra CZT à haute sensibilité, une réduction des activités injectées et un étalonnage supplémentaire des coups pour améliorer la concordance avec les valeurs obtenues par 2D-RNA. [Spanish] Spanish Abstract: Propósito: Determinar si la fracción de eyección del ventrículo izquierdo, medida con la cámara CZT-SPECT con una reducción del 70% en tiempo de grabación y con la prevención de la sobreestimación mediante una calibración de cuentas adicional, que sea concordante con el valor referencia de fracción de eyección mediante radiografía planar de radionucleidos. (2D-RNA). Métodos: Una grabación adicional de 10 minutos con CZT-SPECT se realizo en pacientes referidos a radiografía planar de radionucleidos (2D-RNA) por miocardiopatías. (n = 23) o para monitorizar las quimioterapias (n = 50) con marcaje de glóbulos rojos con 850 MBq 99m TcO4. La fracción de eyección obtenida por CZT-SPECT con 100% (SPECT100) o 30% (SPECT30) de tiempo de proyección, y con SPECT con calibración de cuentas con el 2D-RNA, los volúmenes de cavidades fueron comparados con fracción de eyección . Relaciones fuertes y equivalentes fueron documentados entre fracción de eyección del 2D-RNA, y la forma calibrada de la fracción de eyección SPECT100 (y = 0.89x + 6.62; R2 = 0.87) y SPECT30 y = 0.87x + 8.40; R2 = 0.85), y la media de fracción de eyección de SPECT100 (54 ± 15%) and SPECT30 (53 ± 16%) fueron cercanos a la de el 2D-RNA (55 ± 15%). Aunque, aumentos en estas medias se documentaron en la ausencia de la calibración de cuentas para SPECT100 (60 ± 18%) y SPECT30 (60 ± 18%). Conclusión: La fracción de eyección del ventrículo izquierdo puede ser determinada con una cámara CZT de alta sensibilidad, una reducción del 70% en actividades inyectadas y la calibración de cuentas adicional para realzar la concordancia con los valores de 2D-RNA. [Chinese] Chinese Abstract: 目的: 以平面放射性核素血管造影 (2D-RNA) 测定左心室射血分数 (EF) 作为参考标准,为确定利用高灵敏度 CZT SPECT 相机在减少 70% 的记录时间, 并结合计数校准防止高估情况下测量的 EF值, 是否与 2D-RNA 测得的 EF 值一致。 方法: 对心肌病 (n = 23) 或化疗监测 (n = 50) 的患者采用体内标记法注射 850 MBq {sup 99m}TcO{sub 4} 标记的红细胞进行 2D-RNA ,随后再采集 10 分钟 CZT-SPECT。 对 CZT-SPECT 100% 投影时间 (SPECT100) 或 30% 投影时间 (SPECT30) 获得的图像进行重建, 并进行计数校准 (对相应容积获得的 2D-RNA 计数通过 SPECT 校准)获得 EF 值, 与 2D-RNA 测定的 EF 的进行比较。 结果: 2D-RNA 测定的 EF 值与 SPECT100 校准后测定的 EF 值 (y = 0.89x + 6.62; R{sup 2} = 0.87) 及 SPECT30 (y = 0.87x + 8.40; R{sup 2} = 0.85) 校准后 EF 值具有高度相关性, 并且 SPECT100 (54 ± 15%) 和 SPECT30 (53 ± 16%) 测定的 EF 平均值与 2D-RNA 测定的 EF 平均值 (55 ± 15%) 非常接近。 但是, 在没有计数校准的情况下, SPECT100 (60 ± 18%) 和 SPECT30 (60 ± 18%) 测定的 EF 平均值会被高估。 结论: 高灵敏度 CZT 相机可在减少 70% 的注射剂量情况下测定左心室 EF 值, 结合计数校准可进一步提高与 2D-RNA测得的 EF 值的一致性。 关键词: 放射性核素血管造影; 血池 SPECT; CZT 相机; 左心室射血分数; 校准曲线。.

62 RADIOLOGY AND NUCLEAR MEDICINE↗
DOE OSTI2025

Results of a Geant4 benchmarking study for bio‐medical applications, performed with the G4‐Med system

Geant4, a Monte Carlo Simulation Toolkit extensively used in bio-medical physics, is in continuous evolution to include newest research findings to improve its accuracy and to respond to the evolving needs of a very diverse user community. In 2014, the G4-Med benchmarking system was born from the effort of the Geant4 Medical Simulation Benchmarking Group, to benchmark and monitor the evolution of Geant4 for medical physics applications. The G4-Med system was first described in our Medical Physics Special Report published in 2021. Results of the tests were reported for Geant4 10.5. Purpose In this work, we describe the evolution of the G4-Med benchmarking system. Methods The G4-Med benchmarking suite currently includes 23 tests, which benchmark Geant4 from the calculation of basic physical quantities to the simulation of more clinically relevant set-ups. New tests concern the benchmarking of Geant4-DNA physics and chemistry components for regression testing purposes, dosimetry for brachytherapy with a 125 I source, dosimetry for external x-ray and electron FLASH radiotherapy, experimental microdosimetry for proton therapy, and in vivo PET for carbon and oxygen beams. Regression testing has been performed between Geant4 10.5 and 11.1. Finally, a simple Geant4 simulation has been developed and used to compare Geant4 EM physics constructors and physics lists in terms of execution times. Results In summary, our EM tests show that the parameters of the multiple scattering in the Geant4 EM constructor G4EmStandardPhysics_option3 in Geant4 11.1, while improving the modeling of the electron backscattering in high atomic number targets, are not adequate for dosimetry for clinical x-ray and electron beams. Therefore, these parameters have been reverted back to those of Geant4 10.5 in Geant4 11.2.1. The x-ray radiotherapy test shows significant differences in the modeling of the bremsstrahlung process, especially between G4EmPenelopePhysics and the other constructors under study (G4EmLivermorePhysics, G4EmStandardPhysics_option3, and G4EmStandardPhysics_option4). These differences will be studied in an in-depth investigation within our Group. Improvement in Geant4 11.1 has been observed for the modeling of the proton and carbon ion Bragg peak with energies of clinical interest, thanks to the adoption of ICRU90 to calculate the low energy proton stopping powers in water and of the Linhard–Sorensen ion model, available in Geant4 since version 11.0. Nuclear fragmentation tests of interest for carbon ion therapy show differences between Geant4 10.5 and 11.1 in terms of fragment yields. In particular, a higher production of boron fragments is observed with Geant4 11.1, leading to a better agreement with reference data for this fragment. Conclusions Based on the overall results of our tests, we recommend to use G4EmStandardPhysics_option4 as EM constructor and QGSP_BIC_HP with G4EmStandardPhysics_option4, for hadrontherapy applications. The Geant4-DNA physics lists report differences in modeling electron interactions in water, however, the tests have a pure regression testing purpose so no recommendation can be formulated.

62 RADIOLOGY AND NUCLEAR MEDICINE↗