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NASA NTRS2011

Orion Entry Handling Qualities Assessments

The Orion Command Module (CM) is a capsule designed to bring crew back from the International Space Station (ISS), the moon and beyond. The atmospheric entry portion of the flight is deigned to be flown in autopilot mode for nominal situations. However, there exists the possibility for the crew to take over manual control in off-nominal situations. In these instances, the spacecraft must meet specific handling qualities criteria. To address these criteria two separate assessments of the Orion CM s entry Handling Qualities (HQ) were conducted at NASA s Johnson Space Center (JSC) using the Cooper-Harper scale (Cooper & Harper, 1969). These assessments were conducted in the summers of 2008 and 2010 using the Advanced NASA Technology Architecture for Exploration Studies (ANTARES) six degree of freedom, high fidelity Guidance, Navigation, and Control (GN&C) simulation. This paper will address the specifics of the handling qualities criteria, the vehicle configuration, the scenarios flown, the simulation background and setup, crew interfaces and displays, piloting techniques, ratings and crew comments, pre- and post-fight briefings, lessons learned and changes made to improve the overall system performance. The data collection tools, methods, data reduction and output reports will also be discussed. The objective of the 2008 entry HQ assessment was to evaluate the handling qualities of the CM during a lunar skip return. A lunar skip entry case was selected because it was considered the most demanding of all bank control scenarios. Even though skip entry is not planned to be flown manually, it was hypothesized that if a pilot could fly the harder skip entry case, then they could also fly a simpler loads managed or ballistic (constant bank rate command) entry scenario. In addition, with the evaluation set-up of multiple tasks within the entry case, handling qualities ratings collected in the evaluation could be used to assess other scenarios such as the constant bank angle maintenance case. The 2008 entry assessment was divided into two sections (see Figure 1). Entry I was the first, high speed portion of a lunar return and Entry II was the second, lower speed portion of a lunar return, which is similar (but not identical) to a typical ISS return.

Bihari, B.↗

DOE OSTI2023

A Review of Infrasound and Seismic Observations of Sample Return Capsules since the End of the Apollo Era in Anticipation of the OSIRIS-REx Arrival

Advancements in space exploration and sample return technology present a unique opportunity to leverage sample return capsules (SRCs) towards studying atmospheric entry of meteoroids and asteroids. Specifically engineered for the secure transport of valuable extraterrestrial samples from interplanetary space to Earth, SRCs offer unexpected benefits that reach beyond their intended purpose. As SRCs enter the Earth’s atmosphere at hypervelocity, they are analogous to naturally occurring meteoroids and thus, for all intents and purposes, can be considered artificial meteors. Furthermore, SRCs are capable of generating shockwaves upon reaching the lower transitional flow regime, and thus can be detected by strategically positioned geophysical instrumentation. NASA’s OSIRIS-REx (Origins, Spectral Interpretation, Resource Identification, and Security-Regolith Explorer) SRC is one of only a handful of artificial objects to re-enter the Earth’s atmosphere from interplanetary space since the end of the Apollo era and it will provide an unprecedented observational opportunity. This review summarizes past infrasound and seismic observational studies of SRC re-entries since the end of the Apollo era and presents their utility towards the better characterization of meteoroid flight through the atmosphere.

79 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS↗

NASA NTRS2000

The Cassini/Huygens Mission to Saturn

The Cassini/Huygens mission is an international cooperative effort between NASA, the European Space Agency, and the Italian Space Agency to conduct a scientific investigation of the Saturnian system. The spacecraft, which was launched in October of 1997, will use a Venus-Venus-Earth-Jupiter gravity assisted trajectory to arrive at Saturn in July of 2004. The spacecraft, composed of an orbiter and an atmospheric entry probe, will be placed in orbit about Saturn, after which the Huygens probe will be released to enter the atmosphere of Titan, the largest moon of Saturn. The probe data is transmitted during its descent and possible survival on the surface to the orbiter overhead, where it is stored and later relayed to Earth. The orbiter then continues in a four-year mission about Saturn, conducting detailed studies of the atmosphere, the rings, the magnetosphere, Titan, and the icy satellites. The probe carries six instruments to explore the atmosphere and surface of Titan; the orbiter carries twelve instruments for its investigations. This paper characterizes the performance of the Cassini/Huygens spacecraft during its first year and three-quarters of flight, up through the second of the two Venus flybys. The flight system, including the 18 scientific instruments, is described, as well as the detailed overall objectives of the mission.

Mitchell, R.↗

NASA NTRS2019

The Sariçiçek Howardite Fall in Turkey: Source Crater of HED Meteorites on Vesta and Impact Risk of Vestoids

The Sariçiçek howardite meteorite shower consisting of 343 documented stones occurred on September 2, 2015 in Turkey and is the first documented howardite fall. Cosmogenic isotopes show that Sariçiçek experienced a complex cosmic‐ray exposure history, exposed during ~12–14 Ma in a regolith near the surface of a parent asteroid, and that an ~1 m sized meteoroid was launched by an impact 22 ± 2 Ma ago to Earth (as did one‐third of all HED meteorites). SIMS dating of zircon and baddeleyite yielded 4550.4 ± 2.5 Ma and 4553 ± 8.8 Ma crystallization ages for the basaltic magma clasts. The apatite U‐Pb age of 4525 ± 17 Ma, K‐Ar age of ~3.9 Ga, and the U,Th‐He ages of 1.8 ± 0.7 and 2.6 ± 0.3 Ga are interpreted to represent thermal metamorphic and impact‐related resetting ages, respectively. Petrographic; geochemical; and O‐, Cr‐, and Ti‐isotopic studies confirm that Sariçiçek belongs to the normal clan of HED meteorites. Petrographic observations and analysis of organic material indicate a small portion of carbonaceous chondrite material in the Sariçiçek regolith and organic contamination of the meteorite after a few days on soil. Video observations of the fall show an atmospheric entry at 17.3 ± 0.8 km/s from NW; fragmentations at 37, 33, 31, and 27 km altitude; and provide a pre‐atmospheric orbit that is the first dynamical link between the normal HED meteorite clan and the inner Main Belt. Spectral data indicate the similarity of Sariçiçek with the Vesta asteroid family (V‐class) spectra, a group of asteroids stretching to delivery resonances, which includes (4) Vesta. Dynamical modeling of meteoroid delivery to Earth shows that the complete disruption of a ~1 km sized Vesta family asteroid or a ~10 km sized impact crater on Vesta is required to provide sufficient meteoroids ≤4 m in size to account for the influx of meteorites from this HED clan. The 16.7 km diameter Antionia impact crater on Vesta was formed on terrain of the same age as given by the 4He retention age of Sariçiçek. Lunar scaling for crater production to crater counts of its ejecta blanketshow it was formed ~22 Ma ago.

Unsalan, Ozan↗

NASA NTRS1982

Influence of radiant energy exchange on the determination of convective heat transfer rates to Orbiter leeside surfaces during entry

Temperatures measured at the aerodynamic surface of the Orbiter's thermal protection system (TPS), and calorimeter measurements, are used to determine heating rates to the TPS surface during atmospheric entry. On the Orbiter leeside, where convective heating rates are low, it is possible that a significant portion of the total energy input may result from solar radiation, and for the wing, cross radiation from the hot (relatively) Orbiter fuselage. In order to account for the potential impact of these sources, values of solar- and cross-radiation heat transfer are computed, based upon vehicle trajectory and attitude information and measured surface temperatures. Leeside heat-transfer data from the STS-2 mission are presented, and the significance of solar radiation and fuselage-to-wing cross-radiation contributions to total energy input to Orbiter leeside surfaces is assessed.

Throckmorton, D. A.↗

NASA NTRS1977

Outer planets probe testing

An atmospheric entry Probe is being developed by NASA Ames Research Center (ARC) to conduct in situ scientific investigations of the outer planets' atmospheres. A full scale engineering model of an MDAC-E Probe configuration, was fabricated by NASA ARC. Proof-of-concept test validation of the structural and thermal design is being obtained at NASA ARC. The model was successfully tested for shock and dynamic loading and is currently in thermal vacuum testing.

Smittkamp, J. A.↗

NASA NTRS1981

Galileo - Mission to Jupiter

The Galileo mission to Jupiter in the latter half of this decade is NASA's next step in the exploration of Jupiter. The primary science objectives are to study the satellites, the magnetosphere, and Jupiter's atmosphere. In general, there are four characteristics of the Galileo mission which provide the capability to address questions not answered by Voyager: (1) long-term observations - at least 11 orbits of Jupiter in nearly two years - will allow temporal studies of Io vulcanism as well as of interactions between the satellites and magnetosphere; (2) very close satellite flybys - at a distance less than 1000 km at each Galilean satellite - will allow in-depth studies of these satellites at distances 20 to 100 times closer than Voyager achieved; (3) an atmospheric entry probe will measure composition, structure, temperature, energy balance, cloud layer locations and structure, and particle size distribution in Jupiter's atmosphere; and (4) the Orbiter's advanced instrumentation will allow higher resolution and more detailed studies of the satellites, atmosphere, and magnetosphere

Casani, J. R.↗

NASA NTRS1980

Interplanetary dust collected in the earth's stratosphere - The question of solar flare tracks

The negative result of a transmission electron microscope (TEM) search for solar flare tracks in 10 micron interplanetary dust particles (Flynn et al., 1978) which have been collected in the earth's stratosphere with a program of sampling initiated by Brownlee et al. (1976) has been reported previously. In this paper, it is shown that silicates in the particles record laboratory iron-ion tracks which are detectable in the TEM. The absence of tracks in the silicates could be due to track annealing on atmospheric entry, and may indicate a particle emissivity below 0.3, or that many of the particles broke up on encounter with the atmosphere. Alternatively, the lifetime of 10 micron dust particles at 1 AU could be shorter than that given by previous estimates.

Fraundorf, P.↗

NASA NTRS2017

Parametric Structural Model for a Mars Entry Concept

This paper outlines the process of developing a parametric model for a vehicle that can withstand Earth launch and Mars entry conditions. This model allows the user to change a variety of parameters ranging from dimensions and meshing to materials and atmospheric entry angles to perform finite element analysis on the model for the specified load cases. While this work focuses on an aeroshell for Earth launch aboard the Space Launch System (SLS) and Mars entry, the model can be applied to different vehicles and destinations. This specific project derived from the need to deliver large payloads to Mars efficiently, safely, and cheaply. Doing so requires minimizing the structural mass of the body as much as possible. The code developed for this project allows for dozens of cases to be run with the single click of a button. The end result of the parametric model gives the user a sense of how the body reacts under different loading cases so that it can be optimized for its purpose. The data are reported in this paper and can provide engineers with a good understanding of the model and valuable information for improving the design of the vehicle. In addition, conclusions show that the frequency analysis drives the design and suggestions are made to reduce the significance of normal modes in the design.

Lane, Brittney M.↗

NASA NTRSDate not supplied

Arc-jet Testing of Continuously Woven Aeroshells–Spiderweave–for Adaptable Deployable Entry Placement Technology

The Adaptable, Deployable Entry Placement Technology (ADEPT) is an entry system that, when deployed, creates a large, umbrella-like drag surface that can be used to decelerate spacecraft during atmospheric entry, resulting in lower entry loads and heating than a rigid aeroshell of equivalent mass. Until needed for entry, the system can remain stowed, enabling missions to overcome launch vehicle fairing diameter constraints. 12-inch diameter umbrella-like articles, similar to a small reentry probe using ADEPT, were tested in the Ames 20-MWAerodynamic Heating Facility. Performance of the test articles built with a novel, continuously woven aeroshell construction (called Spiderweave) is compared against those built with legacy construction styles. In addition, candidate thermal protective layer treatments applied to structurally sensitive regions of the aeroshell are assessed using data from on-board instrumentation as well as facility optical instruments.

ADEPT↗

NASA NTRS2021

Mars 2020 Trajectory Correction Maneuver Design

The Mars 2020 mission launched on 30 July 2020 and arrived at Mars on 18 February 2021. Delivering the mission’s Perseverance rover to Jezero Crater required adjusting the postlaunch trajectory to remove the launch injection bias and to target the atmospheric entry conditions, while also satisfying requirements on the propellant usage and non-nominal impact probability at Mars. The Mars 2020 maneuver design team achieved these goals by designing and executing three propulsive maneuvers in flight. The accurate on-board execution of those maneuvers delivered the spacecraft into the Martian atmosphere in a state that allowed for a successful entry, descent, and landing on the surface. This paper details the maneuver design process and describes the design and execution of the three in-flight propulsive maneuvers.

Kruizinga, Gerhard↗

NASA NTRS2014

Time-varying Entry Heating Profile Replication with a Rotating Arc Jet Test Article

A new approach for arc jet testing of thermal protection materials at conditions approximating the time-varying conditions of atmospheric entry was developed and demonstrated. The approach relies upon the spatial variation of heat flux and pressure over a cylindrical test model. By slowly rotating a cylindrical arc jet test model during exposure to an arc jet stream, each point on the test model will experience constantly changing applied heat flux. The predicted temporal profile of heat flux at a point on a vehicle can be replicated by rotating the cylinder at a prescribed speed and direction. An electromechanical test model mechanism was designed, built, and operated during an arc jet test to demonstrate the technique.

Thermal protection materials↗

NASA NTRS2013

Cubesat Application for Planetary Entry Missions (CAPE)

The Cubesat Application for Planetary Entry Missions (CAPE) concept describes a high-performing Cubesat system which includes a propulsion module and miniaturized technologies capable of surviving atmospheric entry heating, while reliably transmitting scientific and engineering data. The Micro Return Capsule 2 (MIRKA2) is CAPE’s first planetary entry probe flight prototype. Within this context, this paper summarizes CAPE’s configuration and typical operational scenario. It also summarizes MIRKA2’s design and basic aerodynamic characteristics, and discusses potential challenges drawn from the experience of missions such as Stardust and MUSES-C. CAPE not only opens the door to new planetary mission capabilities, it also offers relatively low-cost opportunities especially suitable to university participation.

Planetary↗

NASA NTRS2014

Cubesat Application for Planetary Entry (CAPE) Missions: Micro-Reentry Capsule (MIRCA)

The Cubesat Application for Planetary Entry Missions (CAPE) concept describes a high-performing Cubesat system which includes a propulsion module and miniaturized technologies capable of surviving atmospheric entry heating, while reliably transmitting scientific and engineering data. The Micro Return Capsule (MIRCA) is CAPEs first planetary entry probe flight prototype. Within this context, this paper briefly describes CAPEs configuration and typical operational scenario, and summarizes ongoing work on the design and basic aerodynamic characteristics of the prototype MIRCA vehicle. CAPE not only opens the door to new planetary mission capabilities, it also offers relatively low-cost opportunities especially suitable to university participation.

micro-return capsule↗

NASA NTRS1999

Latest Results from the Mars Pathfinder Atmospheric Structure Investigation

The Mars Pathfinder Atmospheric Structure Investigation (ASI) obtained information on Martian atmospheric structure from three science accelerometers, which measured the deceleration of the probe at all levels in the atmosphere. Entry, descent, and landing occurred within 850 km of the Viking 1 landing site and somewhat later in northern summer. Pathfinder entered at 3 AME Local Mars Time (LMT), which provided the first opportunity to study Mars' nighttime atmospheric structure, and Viking 1 entered at 4:15 PME LMT. Magalhaes et al and Schofield et al have previously reported on the analysis of accelerometer measurements from the entry phase, which ended at about 8.5 km. The derived temperature profile extends from 140 km altitude down to 8.9 km, with a vertical resolution ranging from 250 meters to 50 meters, respectively. Here we report on a refined analysis of the Pathfinder entry phase ASIE data in which the effects of the small angular motions of the entry vehicle have been removed, thus enabling a search for small amplitude and small vertical wavelength structures. In addition, we will report on the atmospheric structure at altitudes below 8 km which is being derived from the accelerometer data acquired during the parachute descent phase. Additional information is contained in the original extended abstract.

Magalhaes, J. A.↗

NASA NTRS2013

Post-flight Analysis of Mars Science Laboratory Entry Aerothermal Environment and Thermal Protection System Response

The Mars Science Laboratory successfully landed on the Martian surface on August 5th, 2012. The rover was protected from the extreme heating environments of atmospheric entry by an ablative heatshield. This Phenolic Impregnated Carbon Ablator heatshield was instrumented with a suite of embedded thermocouples, isotherm sensors, and pressure transducers. The sensors monitored the in-depth ablator response, as well as the surface pressure at discrete locations throughout the hypersonic deceleration. This paper presents a comparison of the flight data with post-entry estimates. An assessment of the aerothermal environments, as well as the in-depth response of the heatshield material is made, and conclusions regarding the overall performance of the ablator at the suite locations are presented.

mars science laboratory↗

NASA NTRS2017

Mars 2020 Entry, Descent, and Landing Instrumentation 2 (MEDLI2) Sensor Suite

The Mars 2020 Entry, Descent, and Landing Instrumentation 2 (MEDLI2) sensor suite seeks to address the aerodynamic, aerothermodynamic, and thermal protection system (TPS) performance issues during atmospheric entry, descent, and landing of the Mars 2020 mission. Based on the highly successful instrumentation suite that flew on Mars Science Laboratory (MEDLI), the new sensor suite expands on the types of measurements and also seeks to answer questions not fully addressed by the previous mission. Sensor Package: MEDLI2 consists of 7 pressure transducers, 17 thermal plugs, 2 heat flux sensors, and one radiometer. The sensors are distributed across both the heatshield and backshell, unlike MEDLI (the first sensor suite), which was located solely on the heat-shield. The sensors will measure supersonic pressure on the forebody, a pressure measurement on the aftbody, near-surface and in-depth temperatures in the heatshield and backshell TPS materials, direct total heat flux on the aftbody, and direct radiative heating on the aftbody. Instrument Development: The supersonic pressure transducers, the direct heat flux sensors, and the radiometer all were tested during the development phase. The status of these sensors, including the piezo-resistive pressure sensors, will be presented. The current plans for qualification and calibration for all of the sensors will also be discussed. Post-Flight Data Analysis: Similar to MEDLI, the estimated flight trajectory will be reconstructed from the data. The aerodynamic parameters that will be reconstructed will be the axial force coefficient, freestream Mach number, base pressure, atmospheric density, and winds. The aerothermal quantities that will be determined are the heatshield and backshell aero-heating, turbulence transition across the heatshield, and TPS in-depth performance of PICA. By directly measuring the radiative and total heat fluxes on the back-shell, the convective portion of the heat flux will be estimated. The status of the current tools to perform the post-flight data analysis will be presented, along with plans for model improvements.

Hwang, Helen H.↗

NASA NTRS2017

Mars 2020 Entry, Descent, and Landing Instrumentation 2 (MEDLI2) Sensor Suite

Hwang, Helen↗