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NASA NTRS1973

Variation of the low level winds during the passage of a thunderstorm gust front

Three time histories of wind profiles in thunderstorm gust fronts at Cape Kennedy and three at Oklahoma City are analyzed. Wind profiles at maximum wind strength below 100 m follow logarithmic laws, so that winds above the surface layer can be estimated from surface winds once the roughness length is known. A statistical analysis of 81 cases of surface winds during thunderstorms at Tampa revealed no predictor with skill to predict the time of maximum gust. Some 34% of the variance of the strength of the gust is accounted for by a stability index and surface wind prior to the gust; the regression equations for these variables are given. The coherence between microscale wind speed variations at the different levels has the same proportions as in non-thunderstorm cases.

Sinclair, R. W.↗

NASA NTRS1975

The effect of cosmic rays on thunderstorm electricity

The inflow of charges of small ions, formed by cosmic rays, into thunderstorm cells is estimated on the basis of rocket measurements of ionic concentrations below 90 km. Out of the two processes that form the thunderstorm charge (generation and separation of charges), the former is supposed to be caused by cosmic rays, and the nature of separation is assumed to be the same as in other thunderstorm theories.

Bragin, Y. A.↗

NASA NTRS1974

Thunderstorms observed by radio astronomy Explorer 1 over regions of low man made noise

Radio Astronomy Explorer (RAE) I observations of thunderstorms over regions of low man-made noise levels are analyzed to assess the satellite's capability for noise source differentiation. The investigation of storms over Australia indicates that RAE can resolve noise generation due to thunderstorms from the general noise background over areas of low man-made noise activity. Noise temperatures observed by RAE over stormy regions are on the average 10DB higher than noise temperatures over the same regions in the absence of thunderstorms. In order to determine the extent of noise contamination due to distant transmitters comprehensive three dimensional computer ray tracings were generated. The results indicate that generally, distant transmitters contribute negligibly to the total noise power, being 30DB or more below contributions arriving from an area immediately below the satellite.

Caruso, J. A.↗

NASA NTRS1977

Wind shear and wet and dry thermodynamic indices as predictors of thunderstorm motion and severity and application to the AVE 4 experimental data

Two types of parameters are computed and mapped for use in assessing their individual merits as predictors of occurrence and severity of thunderstorms. The first group is comprised of equivalent potential temperature, potential temperature, water vapor mixing ratio, and wind speed. Equivalent potential temperature maxima and strong gradients of equivalent potential temperature at the surface correlate well with regions of thunderstorm activity. The second type, comprised of the energy index, shear index, and energy shear index, incorporates some model dynamics of thunderstorms, including nonthermodynamic forcing. The energy shear index is found to improve prediction of tornadic and high-wind situations slightly better than other indices. It is concluded that further development and refinement of nonthermodynamic aspects of predictive indices are definitely warranted.

Connell, J. R.↗

NASA NTRS1978

Initiation of non-tropical thunderstorms by solar activity

A theory of thunderstorm initiation is proposed to account for the statistical correlation between solar activity and thunderstorm occurrence in middle to high latitudes. It is suggested that cosmic ray decreases and/or high-energy solar protons associated with active solar events enhance the electric field at low heights so that, if appropriate meteorological conditions are present during a solar event, the atmospheric electric field enhancement may be sufficient to trigger thunderstorm development. Statistical correlations and atmospheric electric effects are described. The theory could be tested if the possible forcing functions and the responding atmospheric electrical and ionic species' characteristics were measured.

Herman, J. R.↗

NASA NTRS1977

Three dimensional cloud top changes related to thunderstorm severity

Digital infrared data from a geostationary satellite are used to study thunderstorm top growth rates and other parameters in relation to the occurrence of severe weather on the ground. Both the rate of upward growth of the thunderstorm top and the maximum height reached are shown to be useful parameters in the detection of severe thunderstorms.

Adler, R. F.↗

NASA NTRS1979

Thunderstorm intensity as determined from satellite data

Digital infrared data from SMS 2 obtained on May 6, 1975 are used to study thunderstorm vertical growth rates and cloud top structure in relation to the occurrence of severe weather (tornadoes, hail, and high wind) on the ground. All thunderstorms from South Dakota to Texas along a N-S oriented cold front were monitored for a 4 h period with 5 min interval data. Thunderstorm growth rate, as determined by the rate of blackbody temperature isotherm expansion and minimum cloud top temperature, are shown to be correlated with reports of severe weather on the ground.

Adler, R. F.↗

NASA NTRS1980

Solar terrestrial relationships related to thunderstorms and BUV dark current and ozone data

Solar terrestrial interactions as they affect Nimbus 4 BUV dark current and possibly affect thunderstorm occurrence are investigated. A solar wind index is calculated for 1970 to 1971. Dark current enhancements appear to be associated in some way with solar proton events and the solar wind index, but additional investigations by GSFC are required before conclusions can be drawn. Superposed epoch analysis of an index of North American thunderstorm occurrence reveals a discernible increase in the index magnitude on days 1 and 2 following solar proton events. There appears to be little or no 27 day recurrence tendency in thunderstorm occurrence frequency and no association with vorticity area index on a day to day basis.

Herman, J. R.↗

NASA NTRS1980

Gravity waves from thunderstorms

Gravity waves generated by severe thunderstorms in the eastern Ohio-Pennsylvania area were recorded by an array of microbarovariographs at Palisades, New York and by standard microbarographs across northeastern United States. The waves were associated with the cold mesohigh from the outflow of the thunderstorms. Along their path the waves apparently triggered new thunderstorms. The waves were observed to propagate with the velocity of the wind just below the tropopause. The long-distance propagation of the waves is explained by the presence of a dust associated with the critical level (steering level), in agreement with the derivations given by Lindzen and Tung (1976). The dust was directional and waves were absent to the west of the generating area. In the generating area wave-CISK might have been operating. Sharp vertical temperature gradients associated with the passage of the waves were observed by temperature sensors on a tower.

Balachandran, N. K.↗

NASA NTRS1981

Thunderstorm hazards flight research: Storm hazards 1980 overview

A highly instrumented NASA F-106B aircraft, modified for the storm hazards mission and protected against direct lightning strikes, was used in conjunction with various ground based radar and lightning measurement systems to collect data during thunderstorm penetration flights. During 69 thunderstorm penetrations, there were 10 direct lightning strikes to the aircraft. No problems were encountered with any of the aircraft's systems as a result of the strikes and the research instrumentation performed as designed. Electromagnetic characteristics of nine strikes were recorded, and the results of other experiments confirm the theory that X-ray radiation and nitrous oxide gas are being produced by processes associated directly with thunderstorm electric fields and lightning discharges. A better understanding of aircraft lightning attachment mechanisms and strike zones is being accomplished by careful inspection, identification, and documentation of lightning attachment points and swept stroke paths following each strike to the aircraft.

Deal, P. L.↗

NASA NTRS1980

Thunderstorm Overflight Program

The Thunderstorm Overflight Program is being conducted by NASA, NOAA, and universities to evaluate the feasibility of making meaningful measurements of lightning parameters from an orbiting platform above thunderstorms. A NASA instrumented U-2 high-altitude research aircraft was used during the summer of 1979 and spring of 1980 to collect data over the tops of the thunderstorms while ground-based measurements were being made simultaneously. Test sites at Langmuir Laboratory, Socorro, N. Mex., and the National Severe Storms Laboratory, Norman, Okla. were used for this program. Additional flights are planned for the spring and summer of 1981. Data from the NASA U-2 flights will also be used to interpret measurements made during the Nighttime/Daytime Optical Survey Lightning Experiment to be flown on the Space Shuttle in late 1981.

Vaughan, O. H., Jr.↗

NASA NTRS1982

Maxwell currents under thunderstorms

Time variations observed in thunderstorm electric fields may be interpreted in terms of a total Maxwell current density, varying slowly with time in the intervals between lightning discharges, which can be used to estimate and map thunderstorms. Using the quasi-static behavior of the Maxwell current density, an expression is derived for the field-dependent current density under a thunderstorm during the field recovery following a lightning discharge. Values of air conductivity under the small storm which range from 2 to 6 x 10 to the -13th mho/m are inferred. Data are presented which indicate that the area-average Maxwell current is not usually affected by lightning, and instead varies slowly throughout the evolution of the storm. In light of this, it is suggested that cloud electrification processes probably do not depend on the cloud electric field as much as on the more slowly varying storm dynamics and meteorological structure.

Krider, E. P.↗

NASA NTRS1983

Thunderstorm top structure observed by aircraft overflights with an infrared radiometer

Thunderstorm top structure is examined with high spatial resolution radiometric data (visible and infrared) from aircraft overflights together with other storm views, including geosynchronous satellite observations. Results show that overshooting cumuliform towers appear as distinct cold areas in the high resolution, 11-micron IR aircraft images, but that the geosynchronous satellite observations significantly overestimate the thunderstorm-top IR brightness temperature, T(B), due to field of view effects. Profiles of cloud top height and T(B) across overshooting features indicate an adiabatic cloud surface lapse rate. However, one-dimensional cloud model results indicate that when comparing thunderstorm top temperature and height at different times or different storms, a temperature-to-height conversion of about 7 K/km is appropriate. Examination of mature storm evolution indicates that, during periods when the updraft is relatively intense, the satellite IR 'cold point' is aligned with the low-level radar reflectivity maximum, but during periods of updraft weakening and lowering cloud top heights, the satellite T(B) minimum occurs downwind with cirrus anvil debris. The growth period of a relatively weak cumulonimbus cluster is also examined with aircraft and satellite data.

Adler, R. F.↗

NASA NTRS1985

Detection of severe Midwest thunderstorms using geosynchronous satellite data

In the present exploration of the effectiveness of severe thunderstorm detection in the Midwestern region of the U.S. by means of approximately 5-min interval geosynchronous satellite data, thunderstorms are defined in IR data as points of relative minimum in brightness temperature T(B) having good time continuity and exhibiting a period of rapid growth. The four parameters of rate of T(B) decrease in the upper troposphere and stratosphere, isotherm expansion, and storm lifetime minimum T(B), are shown to be statistically related to the occurrence of severe weather on four case study days and are combined into a Thunderstorm Index which varies among values from 1 to 9. Storms rating higher than 6 have a much higher probability of severe weather reports, yielding a warning time lead of 15 min for hail and 30 min for the first tornado report.

Adler, R. F.↗

NASA NTRS1985

The interaction of a dipolar thunderstorm with its global electrical environment

The role of the thundercloud in the global electric circuit has been considered by many researchers. Thus, Holzer and Saxon (1952) have constructed a simple model of a bipolar thunderstorm. The global models considered provide insight into the atmospheric electric circuit but are restricted, both by various analytical mathematical representations and by computer size, to a grid of about five degrees in latitude and longitude. A need exists, therefore, for the development of a numerical regional model capable of resolving small-scale phenomena so that their coupling into the global-scale circuit can be examined. The construction of a two-dimensional quasi-static numerical model of atmospheric electricity is discussed. The model provides a basis for the calculation of the global electric field and current distribution produced by a single thunderstorm generator. In connection with the calculations, the thunderstorm was defined by a quasi-static current source function which generates a dipole charge configuration.

Tzur, I.↗

NASA NTRS1985

Thunderstorm currents and lightning charges at the NASA Kennedy Space Center

The NASA Kennedy Space Center, (KSC) and the U.S. Air Force are currently operating an extensive network of ground-based electric-field mills in order to detect atmospheric electrical hazards to ground operations, launches, and landings of spacecraft. Over the past 10 years, the University of Arizona has utilized data provided by this network, and other instrumentation, to investigate the electrical structure of thunderstorms and lightning in Florida. Recent analyses have included estimates of the Maxwell current density that thunderstorms produce at the ground and computations of the locations and magnitudes of lightning-caused changes in the cloud charge distribution. This work is reviewed, and an example of how thunderstorm current patterns and lightning charges develop in both space and time is presented.

Krider, E. P.↗

NASA NTRS1987

Automated detection of severe thunderstorms using geosynchronous infrared data

A procedure to identify thunderstorms from short-interval (5 min) GOES infrared (IR) data and to estimate their intensity (updraft strength) in an automated fashion is described. Thunderstorms are identified in the IR field by a simple pattern-recognition approach. For mature thunderstorms, two key parameters are used to estimate intensity: the amount of penetration above the neutral point and the occurrence (or not) of a cold-warm couplet in the IR TB field. Based on cloud model results, the amount of penetration is related to the maximum updraft speed, which is converted to an index. Application of the algorithm to a case study is presented.

Adler, Robert F.↗

NASA NTRS1987

Short range forecasting of sea breeze generated thunderstorms at the Kennedy Space Center: A real-time experiment using a primitive equation mesoscale numerical model

The operational efficiency of using guidance from a mesoscale numerical model to improve sea breeze thunderstorm forecasts at and around the Shuttle landing strip was assessed. The Prognostic Three-Dimensional Mesoscale (P3DM) model, developed as a sea breeze model, reveals a strong correlation between regions of mesoscale convergence and the triggering of sea breeze convection thunderstorms. The P3DM was modified to generate stability parameters familiar to the operational forecaster. In addition to the mesoscale fields of wind, vertical motion, moisture, temperature, a stability indicator, a combination of model-predicted K and Lifted Indices and the maximum grid cell vertical motion, were proposed and tested. Results of blind tests indicate that a forecaster, provided with guidance derived from model output, could improve local thunderstorm forecasts.

Lyons, Walter A.↗