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Search indexed NASA NTRS and DOE OSTI research on propulsion, heat transfer, battery materials and energy systems. Follow report and document links to the original sources.

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All sourcesNASA NTRSDOE OSTI
NASA NTRS1994

Electromagnetic Probe Technique for Fluid Flow Measurements

The probes described herein, in various configurations, permit the measurement of the volume fraction of two or more fluids flowing through a pipe. Each probe measures the instantaneous relative dielectric constant of the fluid in immediate proximity. As long as separation of the relative dielectric constants of each fluid is possible, several or even many fluids can be measured in the same flow steam. By using multiple probes, the velocity of each fluid can generally be determined as well as the distribution of each constituent in the pipe. The values are determined by statistical computation. There are many potential applications for probes of this type in industry and government. Possible NASA applications include measurements of helium/hydrazine flow during rocket tests at White Sands, liquid/gas flow in hydrogen or oxygen lines in Orbiter engines, and liquid/gaseous Freon flow in zero gravity tests with the KS135 aircraft at JSC. Much interest has been shown recently by the oil industry. In this industry, a good method is needed to measure the fractions of oil, water, and natural gas flowing in a pipeline and the velocity of each. This particular problem involves an extension of what has been developed to date and our plans and program to solve this problem will be discussed herein.

Arndt, G. D.↗
DOE OSTI2014

RELAP-7 Beta Release: Summary of Capabilities

RELAP-7 is a nuclear systems safety analysis code being developed at the Idaho National Laboratory (INL). Building upon the decades of software development at the INL, we began the development of RELAP-7 in 2011 to support the Risk Informed Safety Margins Characterization (RISMC) Pathway. As part of this development, the first lines of RELAP-7 code were committed to the software revision control repository on November 7th, 2011. The overall design goal of RELAP-7 is to take advantage of the previous thirty years of advancements in computer architecture, software design, numerical methods, and physical models in order to provide capabilities needed for the RISMC methodology and to support nuclear power safety analysis. RELAP-7 is built using the INL’s modern scientific software development framework, MOOSE (Multi-physics Object Oriented Simulation Environment). MOOSE provides improved numerical calculations (including higher-order integration in both space and time, yielding converged second-order accuracy). The RELAP-7 code structure is based on multiple physical component models such as pipes, junctions, pumps, etc. Each component can have options for different fluid models such as single- and two-phase flow. This component-based and physics-based software architecture allows RELAP-7 to adopt different physical models for different applications. A relatively new two-phase hydrodynamic model, termed the ''7-Equation model'' for two phasic pressures, velocities, energies, and volumetric fraction, is incorporated into RELAP-7 for liquid-gas (water-steam) flows. This new model allows second-order integration because it is well-posed, which will reduce the numerical error associated with traditional systems analysis codes. In this paper, we provide a RELAP-7 capability list describing analysis features, range of applicability, and reactor components that will be available for the December 15th, 2014 beta release of the software.

22 GENERAL STUDIES OF NUCLEAR REACTORS↗
DOE OSTI2015

Modeling biomass gasification system using multistep kinetics under various oxygen–steam conditions

Biomass gasification is an effective method to convert low‐value lingocellulosic biomass into useful gas products. The ability to predict the gas composition is important to process design. In this study, simulations of biomass gasification were carried out for various feedstocks at different operating conditions, and the model results were validated using experimental data. A multistep kinetics model was developed to predict the syngas composition using different biomass feedstocks under various oxygen‐enriched air and steam conditions. The oxygen level in the gasifying agent ranged from 21% (air) to 45% (pure oxygen). Five different biomass materials were used, including pine, maple–oak mixture, seed corn, corn stover, and switchgrass. The fluidized bed gasifier was maintained at 800°C. The present kinetics model was able to predict the concentrations of H 2 , CO, CO 2 , H 2 O, CH 4 , and N 2 in the syngas, and the predicted compositions were in good agreement with the experimental data. The results show that the model was sensitive to the variation in the oxygen level, steam flow rate, and the composition of the biomass material. As the oxygen level increased, the model also predicted the increase in H 2 , CO, CH 4 , and the H 2 /CO ratio. The mechanism on improving the syngas quality was also explained by analyzing the reaction equations. The increase in hydrogen is believed to be due to the use of steam for gasification. The present model can further be integrated into the process simulation model for predicting the performance of a biorefinery to help utilize biomass energy. © 2015 American Institute of Chemical Engineers Environ Prog, 34: 1148–1155, 2015

Banerjee, Sudhanya↗
DOE OSTI2025

Device for steam cladding oxidation testing at TREAT

To compare the chemical degradation of conventional zirconium alloy (Zry) cladding to advance silicon carbide (SiC) cladding in a post loss of coolant accident (LOCA) environment, new nuclear testing capabilities are necessary. The Transient Reactor Test (TREAT) Facility at Idaho National Laboratory (INL) has matured its transient fuel testing capabilities since its 2017 restart. The most recent experiment architecture is the Transient Water Irradiation System in TREAT (TWIST), which is designed to support qualification of accident tolerant fuels in light water reactors. INL has designed and analyzed a natural circulation steam flow modification for TWIST to produce prototypic conditions of cladding oxidation. The in-situ device will be electrically heated to drive natural circulation. Moreover, the SiC cladding requires heating above 1700 °C to observe failure, thus internal prototypic nuclear heating with radiation effects will be used. Thermal hydraulic analysis with RELAP5-3D (Reactor Excursion and Leak Analysis Program) estimated steam fluxes greater than 50 mg cm −2 s −1 can be achieved. These fluxes are adequate to test Zry cladding according to draft regulatory guides and to test SiC cladding according to past experiments.

Oxidation↗
DOE OSTI2018

Transient performance of MED processes with different feed configurations

Four different configurations of Multi-Effect-Desalination (MED): backward feed (BF), forward feed (FF), parallel feed (PF) and parallel/cross feed (PCF) are modeled in steady and dynamic operation to examine the behavior of these configurations under transient operation. Adding thermal vapor compressor (TVC) unit with the last effect of parallel/cross configuration is also studied and compared to the other configurations to show the advantage of this type of integration. The transient operation is achieved by applying ramp changes (disturbances) in the main input parameters that include steam flow rate at the heat source and cooling seawater temperature and flow rate at the heat sink. Steady state results indicate that parallel/cross feed has a relatively better performance characteristic than the other feed configurations regarding Gain Output Ratio (GOR) and specific heat consumption (SHC). Adding TVC unit to the parallel/cross feed achieves the lowest water production cost. Dynamic results show that MED-TVC with parallel/cross feed has the fastest response while backward feed and forward feed have the slower response to the applied disturbances. In the case of heat source disturbance, MED plants operating in the backward feed arrangement may be exposed to shut down due to the significant increase in brine level for the first effect. The MED-TVC process is susceptible to the heat sink disturbances compared to the PCF and other configurations. Also, changes in input parameters lead to the highest reduction in GOR for the MED-TVC process compared to the different configurations, especially for cooling seawater temperature. The highest reduction in brine level occurs in MED-TVC for a disturbance in the cooling seawater flow rate and may lead to MED-TVC evaporator drying condition. Hence, MED-TVC will require a reliable control system to avoid this type of plant operational disturbance.

42 ENGINEERING↗
DOE OSTI2023

Microstructural analysis of tristructural isotropic particles in high-temperature steam mixed gas atmospheres

High-temperature gas-cooled reactors (HTGRs) use tristructural isotropic (TRISO) particles embedded in a graphitic matrix material to form the integral fuel element. Potential off-normal reactor conditions for HTGRs include steam ingress with temperatures above 1,000 °C. Fuel element exposure to steam can cause the graphitic matrix material to evolve, forming an atmosphere composed of oxidants and oxidation products and potentially exposing the TRISO particles to these conditions. Investigating the oxidation response of TRISO particles exposed to a mixed gas atmosphere will provide insight into the stability under off-normal conditions. In this study, surrogate TRISO particles were exposed to high temperatures (T = 1,200 °C) in flowing steam (3% < pH 2 O < 21%) and CO (pCO < 1%) to determine the oxidation behavior of the SiC layer when exposed to various mixed gas atmospheres. Scanning electron microscopy, x-ray diffraction, and focused ion beam milling was used to determine the impact of CO and steam on the oxidation behavior of the SiC layer. Therefore, the data presented demonstrates how the SiC layer showed strong oxidation resistance due to limited SiO 2 growth and maintained its structural integrity under these off-normal conditions.

11 NUCLEAR FUEL CYCLE AND FUEL MATERIALS↗
DOE OSTI2013

Novel Molten Salts Thermal Energy Storage for Concentrating Solar Power Generation

The explicit UA program objective is to develop low melting point (LMP) molten salt thermal energy storage media with high thermal energy storage density for sensible heat storage systems. The novel Low Melting Point (LMP) molten salts are targeted to have the following characteristics: 1. Lower melting point (MP) compared to current salts (<222ºC) 2. Higher energy density compared to current salts (>300 MJ/m3) 3. Lower power generation cost compared to current salt In terms of lower power costs, the program target the DOE's Solar Energy Technologies Program year 2020 goal to create systems that have the potential to reduce the cost of Thermal Energy Storage (TES) to less than $15/kWh-th and achieve round trip efficiencies greater than 93%. The project has completed the experimental investigations to determine the thermo-physical, long term thermal stability properties of the LMP molten salts and also corrosion studies of stainless steel in the candidate LMP molten salts. Heat transfer and fluid dynamics modeling have been conducted to identify heat transfer geometry and relative costs for TES systems that would utilize the primary LMP molten salt candidates. The project also proposes heat transfer geometry with relevant modifications to suit the usage of our molten salts as thermal energy storage and heat transfer fluids. The essential properties of the down-selected novel LMP molten salts to be considered for thermal storage in solar energy applications were experimentally determined, including melting point, heat capacity, thermal stability, density, viscosity, thermal conductivity, vapor pressure, and corrosion resistance of SS 316. The thermodynamic modeling was conducted to determine potential high temperature stable molten salt mixtures that have thermal stability up to 1000 °C. The thermo-physical properties of select potential high temperature stable (HMP) molten salt mixtures were also experimentally determined. All the salt mixtures align with the go/no-go goals stipulated by the DOE for this project. Energy densities of all salt mixtures were higher than that of the current solar salt. The salt mixtures costs have been estimated and TES system costs for a 2 tank, direct approach have been estimated for each of these materials. All estimated costs are significantly below the baseline system that used solar salt. These lower melt point salts offer significantly higher energy density per volume than solar salt – and therefore attractively smaller inventory and equipment costs. Moreover, a new TES system geometry has been recommended A variety of approaches were evaluated to use the low melting point molten salt. Two novel changes are recommended that 1) use the salt as a HTF through the solar trough field, and 2) use the salt to not only create steam but also to preheat the condensed feedwater for Rankine cycle. The two changes enable the powerblock to operate at 500°C, rather than the current 400°C obtainable using oil as the HTF. Secondly, the use of salt to preheat the feedwater eliminates the need to extract steam from the low pressure turbine for that purpose. Together, these changes result in a dramatic 63% reduction required for 6 hour salt inventory, a 72% reduction in storage volume, and a 24% reduction in steam flow rate in the power block. Round trip efficiency for the Case 5 - 2 tank “direct” system is estimated at >97%, with only small losses from time under storage and heat exchange, and meeting RFP goals. This attractive efficiency is available because the major heat loss experienced in a 2 tank “indirect” system - losses by transferring the thermal energy from oil HTF to the salt storage material and back to oil to run the steam generator at night - is not present for the 2 tank direct system. The higher heat capacity values for both LMP and HMP systems enable larger storage capacities for concentrating solar power.

25 ENERGY STORAGE↗
DOE OSTI2023

Prediction of the Inter-Tube Flow Mode Transitions in the Evaporators of Multi-Effect Thermal Desalination Plants

Water is one of the most stressed resources on the planet. The limited availability of fresh water and the high cost of transportation have led to an increased interest in water desalination technologies. The two main categories of desalination techniques are membrane desalination and thermal desalination. Membrane technologies include pressure driven and electrical driven membranes. On the other hand, thermal desalination includes: multi-effect desalination (MED), multi-stage flash (MSF) desalination, and mechanical vapor compression desalination. Multi-effect desalination plants are usually made of a series of evaporators (also known as effects). In each effect, hot steam flows inside the tubes and evaporates the seawater that falls on the outside of the tubes. The vapor formed at each effect flows to the next effect and acts as the heating medium for the falling seawater. The prevailing flow mode of the falling seawater (i.e. droplet, jet, or sheet) influences heat and mass transfer as well as dry out in the evaporators of Multi-Effect Desalination (MED) plants. The objective of this paper is to predict and discuss the prevailing falling film flow modes in the evaporators of MED plants, under different operating conditions. The paper demonstrates the transitional Reynolds numbers between the main falling film modes for seawater. This closes a gap in the literature where there is a dearth of mode transition data for seawater. The effect of fluid properties and tube geometry on the transitions is discussed in details. As a result, the accuracy of the predicted transitional Reynolds numbers is evaluated via uncertainty quantification techniques.

availability↗
DOE OSTI2020

Coupling reduced‐order modeling and coarse‐grained CFD‐DEM to accelerate coal gasifier simulation and optimization

Abstract High fidelity three‐dimensional (3‐D) numerical simulations of commercial‐scale coal gasifiers are very time consuming and expensive. This article proposes a reduced‐order modeling approach that uses quasi one‐dimensional (1‐D) CFD–DEM simulation results to serve as an accurate initial condition for the 3‐D simulation, which significantly shortens the physical time from several hours to minutes to achieve steady states. The 3‐D simulation employs a previously validated coarse‐grained CFD‐DEM approach, which further accelerates the simulation. Both 1‐D and 3‐D simulations adopt a particle shrinkage scheme to correctly account for the particle volume change due to chemical reaction and thus provides an accurate bed height. Comparison with available experimental measurements of the bed temperature and synthesis gas composition is used to validate the simulation. The final syngas composition and flowrates are strongly affected by the fuel or gasification agent rate and process operating conditions as expected. This approach is then used to optimize two important operating conditions (air and steam flows) to achieve specific gasifier performance goals for the production of Fischer–Tropsch synthesis gas and production of fuel gas for gas turbines.

Yu, Jia↗
DOE OSTI2021

Chemical looping air separation with Sr 0.8 Ca0.2Fe 0.9 Co 0.1 O 3-δ perovskite sorbent: Packed bed modeling, verification, and optimization

Chemical looping air separation (CLAS) represents a promising approach for efficient O 2 production from the air. This present study aims at optimizing the absorber/desorber operations and the separation process with extensive experimental validation. Specifically, a one-dimensional packed bed model was developed to investigate the CLAS operation with a Sr 0.8 Ca 0.2 Fe 0.9 Co 0.1 O 3-δ perovskite sorbent. The redox thermodynamics of perovskite sorbent was measured by TGA and then incorporated into a linear driving force model to describe the O 2 absorption and desorption rates. Both 4-step and 5-step air separation cycle configurations, with various cyclic structures, were performed in a subpilot-scale packed bed. The model predicted O2 purity and productivity were consistent with experimental results, supporting its accuracy and applicability. Parametric analysis and multi-objective optimization were further carried out to assess the performance of CLAS. Both O 2 purity and recovery increased monotonically with the cycle time, airflow rate, steam flow rate, and absorption pressure. Meanwhile, optimal O 2 productivity and power consumption can only be achieved by specific combinations of these parameters. The optimized results showed that CLAS can be highly competitive when compared to conventional pressure swing adsorption (PSA) or cryogenic distillation. The 5-step cycle configuration achieved a minimum power consumption of 118 kW·h for producing 1 ton O 2 with ≥ 95% purity. The maximum O 2 productivity reached 0.0932 g O2 /(g sorbent ·h) with 390 kW·h/ton O 2 of energy consumption (95% pure). The optimization results also indicate that CLAS can potentially be more efficient than cryogenic distillation even when the required O 2 purity is above 99%.

42 ENGINEERING↗
DOE OSTI2024

Characterizing and improving the performance of molten-salt-steam heat exchangers in concentrating solar power plants

Shell-and-tube heat exchangers (HXs) for steam generation from molten salts in concentrating solar power (CSP) plants experience thermal fatigue due to significant temperature gradients and inherent transient operation. Molten salt-steam HX design lifespans exceed actual lifespans, and, as a consequence, designers overpredict plant profitability and operators neglect appropriate prescriptions to optimize these lifetimes. Here, this study refines HX lifespan estimates with data benchmarked against thermal-fluid mechanical modeling of stress and accumulated fatigue. Reduced-order thermal models of the molten salt-steam, shell-and-tube evaporator and superheater predict transient temperature profiles along the two HXs salt-steam flow paths. The modeled evaporator and superheater temperature profiles enable assessment of cyclic stresses within the HX tubesheets, where molten-salt HX failures are most common. Evaporator and superheater performance data from a current 110 MW elec commercial CSP plant provide a basis for validating the reduced-order HX models. HX life predictions derived from stochastic failure distributions serve as inputs for simulating and optimizing existing plant operations. The impact of the updated lifespans on overall plant revenue depends on operating scenarios. This study suggests that typical ramping rates for a CSP plant with a high-temperature Rankine cycle result in an evaporator and superheater life of approximately 10 and 25 years, respectively, compared to the design target of 30 years. Reduced HX lifespans decrease operational plant revenue on average by 4.6-5.1%. Furthermore, there may be as many as four HX replacements over the 30-year lifetime of the plant; and, purchase agreement loss due to failure to meet contractual production requirements can have ramifications that include the risk of bankruptcy.

14 SOLAR ENERGY↗
DOE OSTI2014

Post Quench Ductility Evaluation of Zircaloy-4 and Select Iron Alloys under Design Basis and Extended LOCA Conditions

Oxidation experiments were conducted at 1200 C in flowing steam with tubing specimens of Zircaloy-4, 317, 347 stainless steels, and the commercial FeCrAl alloy APMT. The purpose was to determine the oxidation behavior and post quench ductility of these alloys under postulated loss-of-coolant accident conditions. The parabolic rate constant for Zircaloy-4 tubing samples at 1200 were determined to be k = 2.173 107 g2/cm4/s C, in excellent agreement with the Cathcart-Pawel correlation. The APMT alloy experienced the slowest oxidation rate among all materials examined in this work. The ductility of post quenched samples was evaluated by ring compression tests at 135 C. For Zircaloy-4, the ductile to brittle transition occurs at an equivalent cladding reacted (ECR) of 19.3%. SS-347 was still ductile after being oxidized for 2400 s (CP-ECR 50%), but the maximum load was reduced significantly owing to the metal layer thickness reduction. No ductility decrease was observed for the post-quenched APMT samples oxidized up to four hours.

accident test↗
DOE OSTI2017

High-temperature oxidation kinetics of sponge-based E110 cladding alloy

Two-sided oxidation experiments were recently conducted at 900°C–1200 °C in flowing steam with samples of sponge-based Zr-1Nb alloy E110. Although the old electrolytic E110 tubing exhibited a high degree of susceptibility to nodular corrosion and experienced breakaway oxidation rates in a relatively short time, the new sponge-based E110 demonstrated steam oxidation behavior comparable to Zircaloy-4. Sample weight gain and oxide layer thickness measurements were performed on oxidized E110 specimens and compared to oxygen pickup and oxide layer thickness calculations using the Cathcart-Pawel correlation. Our study shows that the sponge-based E110 follows the parabolic law at temperatures above 1015 °C. At or below 1015 °C, the oxidation rate was very low when compared to Zircaloy-4 and can be represented by a cubic expression. No breakaway oxidation was observed at 1000 °C for oxidation times up to 10,000 s. Arrhenius expressions are given to describe the parabolic rate constants at temperatures above 1015 °C and cubic rate constants are provided for temperatures below 1015 °C. The weight gains calculated by our equations are in excellent agreement with the measured sample weight gains at all test temperatures. In addition to the as-fabricated E110 cladding sample, prehydrided E110 cladding with hydrogen concentrations in the 100–150 wppm range was also investigated. The effect of hydrogen content on sponge-based E110 oxidation kinetics was minimal. No significant difference was found between as-fabricated and hydrided samples with regard to oxygen pickup and oxide layer thickness for hydrogen contents below 150 wppm.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2025

A statistical representation of bond coating oxidation under environmental barrier coatings

Environmental barrier coatings (EBCs) protect SiC-based ceramic matrix composites (CMCs) in turbine hot sections from high-temperature volatilization in combustion gases. The formation of a SiO 2 thermally grown oxide (TGO) is expected under the EBC after long-term operation. The oxidation resistance of the EBC is understood as a life-limiting factor for the CMC, and this work predicts long-term oxidation behavior under EBCs through a simple statistical approach. Specimens were exposed to 1350°C isothermal conditions for 100-h thermal cycles in flowing steam for up to 1000 h. The EBC morphology, SiO 2 thickness, and SiO 2 cracking behavior were assessed. Using thousands of SiO 2 thickness measurements across many millimeters of the interface, a realistic representation of the entire TGO was captured via a lognormal distribution. The lognormal fit parameters were extrapolated out to 25 000 h to assess the degree of SiO 2 growth, the spread of SiO 2 thicknesses related to the rough oxidizing interface, and percentages of the intermediate bond coating consumed. In conclusion, local interfacial defects from the coating deposition process are identified as local failure points for EBC—CMC systems.

SiO 2↗
DOE OSTI2024

Uncertainty Propagation from Experiment Measurements to Modeling Approaches: A Case for SMR Steam Entrainment Testing

To license new and advanced reactor designs, regulators must be convinced that their unique safety cases—relative to existing large scale reactors—have been adequately addressed by the designed reactor protection systems. In water cooled small modular reactors (SMRs), droplet entrainment in steam flow has significant implications on the progression of accident scenarios due to its compact design features, which requires representative test data applicable to SMR designs. Computer code, modeling and simulation (M&S) tools and models require adequate verification, assessment, and qualification. This includes M&S results validation against scaled empirical data within allowable uncertainty bands to gain regulatory approvals during the various stages of reactor system design, demonstration, and commercialization. However, measurement uncertainty within the empirical datasets and test data applicability ranges requires careful consideration of M&S inputs (i.e., boundary conditions, and initial conditions), and verification and validation efforts. This study focuses on uncertainty quantification in designing scaled test facilities for SMR applications with appropriate measurements and a standard data-reduction method to estimate thermal hydraulics characteristics parameters that incorporate physics phenomena of interest. In addition, this study supports the evaluation model development and assessment process using M&S that interfaces with advanced computing tools and digital twin capabilities. This will allow synchronization between experiment and modeling approaches for droplet entrainment testing and analysis, improving diagnostics, prognostics, and decision-making to accelerate regulatory approval.

21 SPECIFIC NUCLEAR REACTORS AND ASSOCIATED PLANTS↗
DOE OSTI2017

Investigation of High-temperature Oxidation Kinetics and Residual Ductility of Oxidized Samples of Sponge-based E110 Alloy Cladding Tubes

Two-sided oxidation experiments were recently conducted at 1000-1200°C in flowing steam with samples of sponge-based Zr-1Nb alloy E110. Although the old electrolytic E110 tubing exhibited a high degree of susceptibility to nodular corrosion and experienced breakaway oxidation rates in relatively short time, the new sponge-based E110 has demonstrated steam oxidation behavior comparable to Zircaloy-4. The sponge-based E110 followed the parabolic law, and the derived oxidation rate constant is in good agreement with the Cathcart-Pawel (CP) correlation at 1100-1200°C. For 1000°C oxidation, the weight-gain of sponge-based E110 is much lower than Zircaloy-4. No breakaway oxidation was observed at 1000°C up to 8000 s. Ring compression tests were conducted to evaluate the residual ductility of oxidized samples at room temperature and at 135°C. All sponge-based E110 specimens were still ductile at 135°C after being oxidized up to 20% equivalent cladding reacted at 1000-1200°C. Metallographic examinations were performed on oxidized E110 specimens to correlate material performance with microstructure.

73 NUCLEAR PHYSICS AND RADIATION PHYSICS↗
NASA NTRS1977

Large-scale thermal energy storage using sodium hydroxide /NaOH/

A technique employing NaOH phase change material for large-scale thermal energy storage to 900 F (482 C) is described; the concept consists of 12-foot diameter by 60-foot long cylindrical steel shell with closely spaced internal tubes similar to a shell and tube heat exchanger. The NaOH heat storage medium fills the space between the tubes and outer shell. To charge the system, superheated steam flowing through the tubes melts and raises the temperature of NaOH; for discharge, pressurized water flows through the same tube bundle. A technique for system design and cost estimation is shown. General technical and economic properties of the storage unit integrated into a solar power plant are discussed.

Turner, R. H.↗
NASA NTRS1979

Phase 1 of the First Small Power System Experiment (engineering Experiment No. 1). Volume 1: Executive Summary

The development of a modular solar thermal power system for application in the 1 to 10 MWe range is presented. The system is used in remote utility applications, small communities, rural areas, and for industrial uses. Investigations are performed on the energy storage requirements and type of energy storage, concentrator design and field optimization, energy transport, and power conversion subsystems. The system utilizes a Rankine cycle, an axial flow steam turbine for power conversion, and heat transfer sodium for collector fluid.

Holl, R. J.↗