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DOE OSTI2013

L70 life prediction for solid state lighting using Kalman Filter and Extended Kalman Filter based models

Solid-state lighting (SSL) luminaires containing light emitting diodes (LEDs) have the potential of seeing excessive temperatures when being transported across country or being stored in non-climate controlled warehouses. They are also being used in outdoor applications in desert environments that see little or no humidity but will experience extremely high temperatures during the day. This makes it important to increase our understanding of what effects high temperature exposure for a prolonged period of time will have on the usability and survivability of these devices. Traditional light sources “burn out” at end-of-life. For an incandescent bulb, the lamp life is defined by B50 life. However, the LEDs have no filament to “burn”. The LEDs continually degrade and the light output decreases eventually below useful levels causing failure. Presently, the TM-21 test standard is used to predict the L70 life of LEDs from LM-80 test data. Several failure mechanisms may be active in a LED at a single time causing lumen depreciation. The underlying TM-21 Model may not capture the failure physics in presence of multiple failure mechanisms. Correlation of lumen maintenance with underlying physics of degradation at system-level is needed. In this paper, Kalman Filter (KF) and Extended Kalman Filters (EKF) have been used to develop a 70-percent Lumen Maintenance Life Prediction Model for LEDs used in SSL luminaires. Ten-thousand hour LM-80 test data for various LEDs have been used for model development. System state at each future time has been computed based on the state space at preceding time step, system dynamics matrix, control vector, control matrix, measurement matrix, measured vector, process noise and measurement noise. The future state of the lumen depreciation has been estimated based on a second order Kalman Filter model and a Bayesian Framework. The measured state variable has been related to the underlying damage using physics-based models. Life prediction of L70 life for the LEDs used in SSL luminaires from KF and EKF based models have been compared with the TM-21 model predictions and experimental data.

Lall, Pradeep↗

DOE OSTI2013

Prediction of L70 lumen maintenance and chromaticity for LEDs using extended Kalman filter models

Lall, Pradeep↗

DOE OSTI2014

Prediction of Lumen Output and Chromaticity Shift in LEDs Using Kalman Filter and Extended Kalman Filter Based Models

Abstract— Solid-state lighting (SSL) luminaires containing light emitting diodes (LEDs) have the potential of seeing excessive temperatures when being transported across country or being stored in non-climate controlled warehouses. They are also being used in outdoor applications in desert environments that see little or no humidity but will experience extremely high temperatures during the day. This makes it important to increase our understanding of what effects high temperature exposure for a prolonged period of time will have on the usability and survivability of these devices. Traditional light sources “burn out” at end-of-life. For an incandescent bulb, the lamp life is defined by B50 life. However, the LEDs have no filament to “burn”. The LEDs continually degrade and the light output decreases eventually below useful levels causing failure. Presently, the TM-21 test standard is used to predict the L70 life of LEDs from LM-80 test data. Several failure mechanisms may be active in a LED at a single time causing lumen depreciation. The underlying TM-21 Model may not capture the failure physics in presence of multiple failure mechanisms. Correlation of lumen maintenance with underlying physics of degradation at system-level is needed. In this paper, Kalman Filter (KF) and Extended Kalman Filters (EKF) have been used to develop a 70-percent Lumen Maintenance Life Prediction Model for LEDs used in SSL luminaires. Ten-thousand hour LM-80 test data for various LEDs have been used for model development. System state at each future time has been computed based on the state space at preceding time step, system dynamics matrix, control vector, control matrix, measurement matrix, measured vector, process noise and measurement noise. The future state of the lumen depreciation has been estimated based on a second order Kalman Filter model and a Bayesian Framework. Life prediction of L70 life for the LEDs used in SSL luminaires from KF and EKF based models have been compared with the TM-21 model predictions and experimental data.

Lall, Pradeep↗

NASA NTRS1983

Solid-state laser sources for remote sensing

Recent progress in slab-geometry and conventional rod Nd:YAG solid-state lasers for applications in remote sensing is presented. Developments in slab geometry lasers, which were aimed at improving pulse energy and tuning range, have been based on the use of a Nd:glass substrate with a zig-zag optical path, with selective Raman shifting in gases and harmonic generation in LiNbO3 and KDP to extend the tuning range into the UV and visible regions. The theoretically predicted advantages of the elimination of birefringence and thermal and stress-induced focusing in the slab-geometry laser have been confirmed in measurements on a test-bed Nd:glass system, and a CW lamp pumped Nd:YAG oscillator, which have also demonstrated an order of magnitude improvement in laser performance. A single axial mode Nd:YAG oscillator has also been designed which, operating in a 3-msec quasi-CW mode, has a chirp rate of 30 kHz/microsec and a free-running stability of + or - 20 MHz. With chirp compensation, this stability is adequate for wind velocity measurements by coherent lidar.

Byer, R. L.↗

DOE OSTI2014

SSL and LED life prediction and assessment of CCT shift

Solid-state lighting (SSL) products can have a predicted life of 70% lumen output (L70) from 26,000 to 40,000 hours using the LM-80-08 testing standards. Chromaticity shift, correlated color temperature (CCT) and lumen maintenance (LM) will dramatically reduce the nominal life of SSL luminaires. In this work, an off-the-shelf luminaire from Philips (AmbientLED) has been aged in a standard wet hot temperature operating life (WHTOL) of 85% relative humidity and 85°C (85/85) in order to assess reliability of prolonged exposer in a harsh environment. Failure criterion has been derived using the Arrhenius equation from the LM-80-08 standard, as well as the 60W LED Lamp test report from an isothermal environment of 45°C. This is a similar luminaire to the test vehicle used in this research. Data characterization between the two data sets has been carried out to determine the luminaires reliability and life under the 85/85 test conditions. This characterization allows for the determination of poor quality luminaire products in the market place. The distribution properties of the shifting mean values of CCT and LM were incorporated into the Bayesian Linear Regression (BLR) to determine the degradation pattern, in order to predict the remaining useful life (RUL) of the system due to aging before the end-of-life (EoL).

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗

DOE OSTI2013

Color Maintenance of LEDs in Laboratory and Field Applications

To date, consideration for parametric failure of LED products has largely been focused on lumen maintenance. However, color shift is a cause of early failure for some products, and is especially important to consider in certain applications, such as museum lighting, where visual appearance is critical. Field data collected by the U.S. Department of Energy's (DOE) GATEWAY program for LED lamps installed in museums shows that many have changed color beyond a reasonable tolerance well before their rated lifetimes have been reached. Laboratory data collected by DOE's CALiPER program between 2008 and 2010 reveals that many early LED products shifted beyond acceptable tolerances in as little as a few thousand hours. In contrast, data from the L Prize® program illustrates that commercially available LED products can have exemplary color stability that is unmatched by traditional light sources. In addition to presenting data from the aforementioned DOE programs, this report discusses the metrics used for communicating color shift, and provides guidance for end users on how to monitor chromaticity and what to look for in manufacturer warranties. Also covered are the physical changes that have been shown to lead to color shift in some types of LED packages. As with lamps and luminaires, the data presented for LED packages shows that a wide variety of products are available; in order for specifiers and consumers to make educated choices, more detailed and standardized information is necessary.

32 ENERGY CONSERVATION, CONSUMPTION, AND UTILIZATI↗

DOE OSTI2022

Luminescent MOFs (LMOFs): recent advancement towards a greener WLED technology

The replacement of traditional incandescent, halogen and fluorescent lamps by white light emitting diodes (WLEDs) is expected to reduce the global electricity consumption by one-third by 2030, according to the US Department of Energy. The current WLED technology uses rare-earth element (REE) based phosphor materials, which, not only is cost-intensive but also constitutes an environmental concern. Hence, researchers are in a quest for a new-generation of opto-electronic materials that can replace the conventional phosphors in WLEDs and thus aim towards a cleaner and more energy efficient lighting technology for the future. Luminescent metal–organic frameworks (LMOFs) have recently emerged as a new sub-class of MOFs which have demonstrated enormous potential for applications in sensing, imaging, optoelectronics and in solid-state lighting (SSL) technology. LMOFs could be game changers as lighting phosphors due to advantages such as high luminescence quantum yield, tunable excitation and emission which can be achieved by rational design and optimization of metal centers, linkers, and the guest molecules, facile fabrication into devices, and structural robustness. These clear advantageous features of LMOFs make them score over other contemporary materials, and enable them to be futuristic phosphor materials for WLED technology. Here, in this feature article, we will provide an overview of the most recent developments of LMOF-based phosphor materials for SSL with a special focus on WLED technology. The emphasis will be centered around REE-free LMOFs, as the aim is to direct the attention of the readers towards a more viable and greener lighting technology.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗

DOE OSTI2013

Prognostics of damage accural in SSL luminaires and drivers subjected to HTSL accelerated aging

This paper will show an investigation of off-the-shelf luminaires with the focus on the LED electronic drivers, specifically the aluminum electrolytic capacitors (AECs), that have been aged using high temperature shelf life (HTSL) testing of 135°C in order to prognosticate the remaining useful life of the luminaires. Luminaires have the potential of seeing excessive temperatures when being transported across country or being stored in non-climate controlled warehouses. They are also being used in outdoor applications in desert environments that see little or no humidity but will experience extremely high temperatures during the day. This makes it important to increase our understanding of what effects being stored at high temperatures for a prolonged period of time will have on the usability and survivability of these devices. The U.S. Department of Energy has made a long term commitment to advance the efficiency, understanding and development of solid-state lighting (SSL) and is making a strong push for the acceptance and use of SSL products. In this work, the four AECs of three different types inside each LED electronic driver were studied. The change in capacitance and the change in equivalent series resistance (ESR) of the AECs were measured and considered to be a leading indication of failure of the LED system. These indicators were used to make remaining useful life predictions to develop an algorithm to predict the end of life of the AECs. The luminous flux of a pristine downlight module was also monitored using each LED electronic driver that was subjected to HTSL through the progression of the testing to determine a correlation between the light output of the lamp and the failing components of the LED electronic driver. Prognostic and Health Management (PHM) is a useful tool for assessment of the remaining life of electrical components and is demonstrated for AECs in this work.

24 POWER TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION↗

DOE OSTI2013

CALiPER Exploratory Study: Recessed Troffer Lighting

This CALiPER study examines the problems and benefits likely to be encountered with LED products intended to replace linear fluorescent lamps. LED dedicated troffers, replacement tubes, and non-tube retrofit kits were evaluated against fluorescent benchmark troffers in a simulated office space for photometric distribution, uniformity of light on the task surface, suitability of light output, flicker, dimming performance, color quality, power quality, safety and certification issues, ease of installation, energy efficiency, and life-cycle cost.

32 ENERGY CONSERVATION, CONSUMPTION, AND UTILIZATI↗

DOE OSTI2014

Phase transition and multicolor luminescence of Eu{sup 2+}/Mn{sup 2+}-activated Ca{sub 3}(PO{sub 4}){sub 2} phosphors

Graphical abstract: We have synthesized Eu{sup 2+} doped and Eu{sup 2+}/Mn{sup 2+} co-doped Ca{sub 3}(PO{sub 4}){sub 2} phosphors. The emitting color varies from blue to green with increasing of Eu{sup 2+} content for the Eu{sup 2+}-doped phosphor, and the quantum yield of the 0.05Eu{sup 2+}: Ca{sub 2.95}(PO{sub 4}){sub 2} sample reaches 56.7%. Interestingly, Mn{sup 2+} co-doping into Eu{sup 2+}: Ca{sub 3}(PO{sub 4}){sub 2} leads to its phase transition from orthorhombic to rhombohedral, and subsequently generates tunable multi-color luminescence from green to red via Eu{sup 2+} → Mn{sup 2+} energy transfer. - Highlights: • A series of novel Eu{sup 2+}: Ca{sub 3}(PO{sub 4}){sub 2} phosphors were successfully synthesized. • Phase transition of Ca{sub 3}(PO{sub 4}){sub 2} from orthorhombic to rhombohedral occurred when Mn{sup 2+} ions were doped. • The phosphors exhibited tunable multi-color luminescence. • The quantum yield of 0.05Eu{sup 2+}: Ca{sub 2.95}(PO{sub 4}){sub 2} phosphor can reach 56.7%. • The analyses of phosphors were carried out by many measurements. - Abstract: Intense blue-green-emitting Eu{sup 2+}: Ca{sub 3}(PO{sub 4}){sub 2} and tunable multicolor-emitting Eu{sup 2+}/Mn{sup 2+}: Ca{sub 3}(PO{sub 4}){sub 2} phosphors are prepared via a solid-state reaction route. Eu{sup 2+}-doped orthorhombic Ca{sub 3}(PO{sub 4}){sub 2} phosphor exhibits a broad emission band in the wavelength range of 400–700 nm with a maximum quantum yield of 56.7%, and the emission peak red-shifts gradually from 479 to 520 nm with increase of Eu{sup 2+} doping content. Broad excitation spectrum (250–420 nm) of Eu{sup 2+}: Ca{sub 3}(PO{sub 4}){sub 2} matches well with the near-ultraviolet LED chip, indicating its potential applications as tri-color phosphors in white LEDs. Interestingly, Mn{sup 2+} co-doping into Eu{sup 2+}: Ca{sub 3}(PO{sub 4}){sub 2} leads to its phase transition from orthorhombic to rhombohedral, and subsequently generates tunable multi-color luminescence from green to red via Eu{sup 2+} → Mn{sup 2+} energy transfer, under 365 nm UV lamp excitation.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗

DOE OSTI2019

High-Throughput Screening of Solid-State Li-Ion Conductors Using Lattice-Dynamics Descriptors

Low lithium-ion migration barriers have recently been associated with low average vibrational frequencies or phonon band centers, further helping identify descriptors for superionic conduction. To further explore this correlation, here we present the computational screening of ~14,000 Li-containing compounds in the Materials Project database using a descriptor based on lattice dynamics reported recently to identify new promising Li-ion conductors. An efficient computational approach was optimized to compute the average vibrational frequency or phonon band center of ~1,200 compounds obtained after pre-screening based on structural stability, band gap, and their composition. Combining a low computed Li phonon band center with large computed electrochemical stability window and structural stability, 18 compounds were predicted to be promising Li-ion conductors, one of which, Li 3 ErCl 6 , has been synthesized and exhibits a reasonably high room-temperature conductivity of 0.05–0.3 mS/cm, which shows the promise of Li-ion conductor discovery based on lattice dynamics.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗

DOE OSTI2013

Dimming LEDs with Phase-Cut Dimmers. The Specifier's Process for Maximizing Success

DOE GATEWAY program report reviewing how phase-cut dimmers work, how LEDs differ from the incandescent lamps these dimmers were originally designed to control, and how those differences can lead to complications when attempting to dim LEDs. Providing both general guidance and step-by-step procedures for designing phase-controlled LED dimming on both new and existing projects—as well as real-world examples of how to use those procedures—the report aims to reduce the chance of experiencing compatibility-related problems and, if possible, ensure good dimming performance.

32 ENERGY CONSERVATION, CONSUMPTION, AND UTILIZATI↗

DOE OSTI2013

High Efficiency Integrated Package

Solid-state lighting based on LEDs has emerged as a superior alternative to inefficient conventional lighting, particularly incandescent. LED lighting can lead to 80 percent energy savings; can last 50,000 hours – 2-50 times longer than most bulbs; and contains no toxic lead or mercury. However, to enable mass adoption, particularly at the consumer level, the cost of LED luminaires must be reduced by an order of magnitude while achieving superior efficiency, light quality and lifetime. To become viable, energy-efficient replacement solutions must deliver system efficacies of ≥ 100 lumens per watt (LPW) with excellent color rendering (CRI > 85) at a cost that enables payback cycles of two years or less for commercial applications. This development will enable significant site energy savings as it targets commercial and retail lighting applications that are most sensitive to the lifetime operating costs with their extended operating hours per day. If costs are reduced substantially, dramatic energy savings can be realized by replacing incandescent lighting in the residential market as well. In light of these challenges, Cree proposed to develop a multi-chip integrated LED package with an output of > 1000 lumens of warm white light operating at an efficacy of at least 128 LPW with a CRI > 85. This product will serve as the light engine for replacement lamps and luminaires. At the end of the proposed program, this integrated package was to be used in a proof-of-concept lamp prototype to demonstrate the component’s viability in a common form factor. During this project Cree SBTC developed an efficient, compact warm-white LED package with an integrated remote color down-converter. Via a combination of intensive optical, electrical, and thermal optimization, a package design was obtained that met nearly all project goals. This package emitted 1295 lm under instant-on, room-temperature testing conditions, with an efficacy of 128.4 lm/W at a color temperature of ~2873K and 83 CRI. As such, the package’s performance exceeds DOE’s warm-white phosphor LED efficacy target for 2013. At the end of the program, we assembled an A19 sized demonstration bulb housing the integrated package which met Energy Star intensity variation requirements. With further development to reduce overall component cost, we anticipate that an integrated remote converter package such as developed during this program will find application in compact, high-efficacy LED-based lamps, particularly those requiring omnidirectional emission.

32 ENERGY CONSERVATION, CONSUMPTION, AND UTILIZATI↗

DOE OSTI2020

Changes in SSL Device Efficiency and Optical Performance Under Accelerated Aging Conditions

Lighting application efficiency (LAE) describes the efficient delivery of light from the light source to the lighted task and is viewed as a new frontier—increasing energy savings with solid-state lighting (SSL) technologies. The framework for LAE that is proposed by the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) consists of four major elements: light source efficiency, optical delivery efficiency, spectral efficiency, and intensity effectiveness. This report focuses on a sampling of the available SSL products that can be broadly defined as having modified spectral output because the method of spectra modification has a significant impact on light source efficiency and long-term optical delivery and spectral efficiencies. This report focused on the changes in light source, optical delivery, and spectral efficiencies that occur during aging of SSL devices. An accelerated stress test (AST) regiment was developed for the devices under test (DUTs) examined in this report to provide insights into how the performance of SSL devices change with aging. The AST protocols demonstrate that the SSL products discussed in this report often reduce light source efficiency to achieve different spectral characteristics. In addition, aging of the optical components (e.g., lenses, solder masks) in SSL devices can produce increased light absorption, which negatively impacts optical delivery efficiency and light source efficiency. The modified spectral outputs of the selected SSL products discussed in this report come in a variety of form factors and achieve enhanced optical performance by using a variety of methods. All of the products examined in this study use mid-power light-emitting diodes (MP-LEDs), although the number, configuration, phosphor content, and light-emitting diode (LED) pump of the MP-LEDs differ. Product MS-1 is a 60-watt (W) replacement A19 lamp with a hermetically sealed glass globe, which contains an embedded optical filter to absorb green and yellow emissions, thereby creating a “sunlike” modified spectrum. Product MS-2 is a 60-W replacement A19 lamp with 30 MP-LEDs, and it uses a violet LED pump, along with green and red phosphor emissions, to produce a “healthy” spectrum. This spectrum omits blue emissions in an effort to reduce melanopic lux. Product MS-3 is an LED module consisting of 21 MP-LEDs that use a violet LED pump, along with blue, green, and red phosphors, to produce a “sunlike” spectrum. Products MS-4 and MS-5 are both 6-inch (in) downlights that use a manual switching mechanism so that users can select application-specific correlated color temperatures before installation. Products MS-4 and MS-5 both contain two LED primaries (2,700 Kelvin [K] and 5,000 K) for spectral tuning. Product MS-4 contains 12 MP-LEDs for each LED primary, and Product MS-5 contains 10 MP-LEDs for each LED primary. This report summarizes the overall findings from up to 8,000 hours (hrs) of AST on the lamp DUTs (Products MS-1 and MS-2); up to 5,000 hrs of AST on the LED light engine DUTs (Product MS-3); and up to 7,000 hrs of AST on the downlight DUTs (Products MS-4 and MS-5). The AST procedures used in this study included a room temperature operational life (RTOL) test, an operational life test conducted at 45 degrees Celsius (°C; 45OL) test, an operational life test conducted at 75°C (75OL), a wet high-temperature operational life test performed at 65°C and 90% relative humidity (6590), and a wet high-temperature operational life test performed at 75°C and 75% relative humidity (7575). The AST procedures used for Products MS-1 and MS-2 were RTOL, 45OL, and 6590. The AST procedures used for Products MS-3, MS-4, and MS-5 were RTOL, 75OL, and 7575. During the ASTs described herein, separate populations of each product (three DUTs in each population for Products MS-1, MS-2, MS-4, and MS-5; four DUTs in each population for Product MS-3) were subjected to power cycling of 1 hr on and 1 hr off. The key findings from this study include the following. Enhanced optical performance came at the cost of reduced light source efficiency for the lamps and light engines examined in this study. The optical filter used to produce a “sunlike” spectrum for Product MS-1 reduced light source efficiency by 26%, from 113 lumens per watt (lm/W) to 85 lm/W. Products MS-2 and MS-3 that used a violet-pumped LED to achieve “healthy” and “sunlike” enhanced optical performance, respectively, suffered the largest reduction in initial light source efficiency (49 lm/W for Product MS-2 and 68 lm/W for Products MS-3) perhaps because of the use of violet LED as the optical pump. Product MS-2 also had the poorest color fidelity because of undersaturation of blues and oversaturation of greens and yellows. Chromaticity maintenance of the products in this study was generally good, with parametric failure only occurring for one product at one AST condition (i.e., Product MS-3 at 7575). The chromaticity shift for Product MS-3 in 7575 test conditions resulted from reduced emissions of the broad green and red phosphors used to mimic sunlight in the 500–750 nanometer (nm) range. As a result of these phosphor emission losses, chromaticity shifted toward the more stable violet-pumped LED and blue phosphor. Although chromaticity maintenance was acceptable for most products tested, different chromaticity shift mechanisms were observed for temperature and humidity tests compared with temperature alone for Products MS-1, MS-2, and MS-3. For Product MS-1, a relative increase in green emissions was observed with humidity, which may indicate humidity-accelerated degradation of the optical filter at green wavelengths (optical delivery efficiency reduction) or degradation of the emitters in the red region (spectral efficiency reduction). The violet-pumped products (i.e., MS-2 and MS-3) exhibited different chromaticity shift behavior in the temperature-humidity environments, with Product MS-2 shifting generally yellow because of photo-induced oxidation of the plastic globe (i.e., a reduction of optical delivery efficiency) and Product MS-3 shifting toward violet and blue emitters because of faster loss of emission from green and red phosphors (i.e., a reduction in spectral efficiency). Because of an initial drop in power consumption, the light source efficiency of downlights (Products MS-4 and MS-5) increased at RTOL throughout the test duration. The light source efficiency initially increased during 75OL until a decay in luminous flux maintenance (LFM) dominated light source efficiency, whereas the light source efficiency decreased for the entire 7575 test duration. It was found that increasing the ambient environment of an SSL device from 25°C to 75°C decreases the LFM by 2.7 to 5.5, depending on design of the SSL device. Adding humidity to the system (75OL to 7575) was found to decrease LFM by another factor of approximately 3.0. A common location of failure was identified for the downlights (Products MS-4 and MS-5) operated in the 7575 environment. This failure abruptly occurred between 3,000 to 5,000 hrs of testing on the film capacitor of the electromagnetic interference (EMI) filter near the diode bridge for 11 of the 12 downlights. It is likely that this failure was caused by a combination of the high electrical voltage across the capacitor, the location of the capacitor near the heat sources (e.g., transformers, diode bridges, power resistors), and the high stress environment of 7575. Longer test times are needed to fully understand the LFM, luminous efficacy changes, and chromaticity shifts for some of the products. Because of the high reliability, light source efficiency, and spectral tuning capabilities of LEDs, the expectations of LAE for SSL products are greatly increased over traditional lighting products. The data gathered in this report begin to provide an understanding of the tradeoffs that current SSL products undergo when optimizing the different efficiency elements of LAE. As discussed in this report, the findings from the tests conducted show that the optimization of spectral efficiency can come at the cost of initial light source efficiency. Furthermore, the introduction of violet LEDs can promote long-term optical delivery efficiency degradation, and the introduction of optical filters or new phosphors can lead to unwanted spectral efficiency changes because the ratio of phosphor emitters changes with aging. The data presented in this report also identified a common failure location in 6-in downlights. The results regarding long-term behavior of the modified spectra devices studied provide valuable information about changes to the light source, spectral, and optical delivery efficiencies as the devices age. This information can be used to improve future SSL designs.

32 ENERGY CONSERVATION, CONSUMPTION, AND UTILIZATI↗

DOE OSTI2013

Dimming LEDs with Phase-Cut Dimmers: The Specifier's Process for Maximizing Success

This report reviews how phase-cut dimmers work, how LEDs differ from the incandescent lamps that the dimmers were historically designed to control, and how these differences can lead to complications when trying to dim LEDs. Compatibility between a specific LED source and a specific phase-cut dimmer is often unknown and difficult to assess, and ensuring compatibility adds complexity to the design, specification, bidding, and construction observation phases for new buildings and major remodel projects. To maximize project success, this report provides both general guidance and step-by-step procedures for designing phase-controlled LED dimming on both new and existing projects, as well as real-world examples of how to use those procedures.

0-10V↗

DOE OSTI2015

Failure Mode Classification for Life Prediction Modeling of Solid-State Lighting

Since the passing of the Energy Independence and Security Act of 2007, the U.S. government has mandated greater energy independence which has acted as a catalyst for accelerating and facilitating research efforts toward the development and deployment of market-driven solutions for energy-saving homes, buildings and manufacturing, as well as sustainable transportation and renewable electricity generation. As part of this effort, an emphasis toward advancing solid-state lighting technology through research, development, demonstration, and commercial applications is assisting in the phase out of the common incandescent light bulb, as well as developing a more economical lighting source that is less toxic than compact fluorescent lighting. This has led lighting manufacturers to pursue SSL technologies for a wide range of consumer lighting applications. An SSL luminaire’s lifetime can be characterized in terms of lumen maintenance life. Lumen maintenance or lumen depreciation is the percentage decrease in the relative luminous flux from that of the original, pristine luminous flux value. Lumen maintenance life is the estimated operating time, in hours, when the desired failure threshold is projected to be reached at normal operating conditions. One accepted failure threshold of SSL luminaires is lumen maintenance of 70% -- a 30% reduction in the light output of the luminaire. Currently, the only approved lighting standard that puts forth a recommendation for long-term luminous flux maintenance projections towards a specified failure threshold of an SSL luminaire is the IES TM-28-14 (TM28) standard. iii TM28 was derived as a means to compare luminaires that have been tested at different facilities, research labs or companies. TM28 recommends the use of the Arrhenius equation to determine SSL device specific reaction rates from thermally driven failure mechanisms used to characterize a single failure mode – the relative change in the luminous flux output or “light power” of the SSL luminaire. The use of the Arrhenius equation necessitates two different temperature conditions, 25°C and 45°C are suggested by TM28, to determine the SSL lamp specific activation energy. One principal issue with TM28 is the lack of additional stresses or parameters needed to characterize non-temperature dependent failure mechanisms. Another principal issue with TM28 is the assumption that lumen maintenance or lumen depreciation gives an adequate comparison between SSL luminaires. Additionally, TM28 has no process for the determination of acceleration factors or lifetime estimations. Currently, a literature gap exists for established accelerated test methods for SSL devices to assess quality, reliability and durability before being introduced into the marketplace. Furthermore, there is a need for Physics-of-Failure based approaches to understand the processes and mechanisms that induce failure for the assessment of SSL reliability in order to develop generalized acceleration factors that better represent SSL product lifetime. This and the deficiencies in TM28 validate the need behind the development of acceleration techniques to quantify SSL reliability under a variety of environmental conditions. The ability to assess damage accrual and investigate reliability of SSL components and systems is essential to understanding the life time of the SSL device itself. The methodologies developed in this work increases the understanding of SSL devices iv through the investigation of component and device reliability under a variety of accelerated test conditions. The approaches for suitable lifetime predictions through the development of novel generalized acceleration factors, as well as a prognostics and health management framework, will greatly reduce the time and effort needed to produce SSL acceleration factors for the development of lifetime predictions.

Sakalaukus, Peter Joseph↗

DOE OSTI2014

LOW-COST LED LUMINAIRE FOR GENERAL ILLUMINATION

During this two-year Solid-State Lighting (SSL) Manufacturing R&D project Cree developed novel light emitting diode (LED) technologies contributing to a cost-optimized, efficient LED troffer luminaire platform emitting at ~3500K correlated color temperature (CCT) at a color rendering index (CRI) of >90. To successfully achieve program goals, Cree used a comprehensive approach to address cost reduction of the various optical, thermal and electrical subsystems in the luminaire without impacting performance. These developments built on Cree’s high- brightness, low-cost LED platforms to design a novel LED component architecture that will enable low-cost troffer luminaire designs with high total system efficacy. The project scope included cost reductions to nearly all major troffer subsystems as well as assembly costs. For example, no thermal management components were included in the troffer, owing to the optimized distribution of compact low- to mid-power LEDs. It is estimated that a significant manufacturing cost savings will result relative to Cree’s conventional troffers at the start of the project. A chief project accomplishment was the successful development of a new compact, high-efficacy LED component geometry with a broad far-field intensity distribution and even color point vs. emission angle. After further optimization and testing for production, the Cree XQ series of LEDs resulted. XQ LEDs are currently utilized in Cree’s AR series troffers, and they are being considered for use in other platforms. The XQ lens geometry influenced the independent development of Cree’s XB-E and XB-G high-voltage LEDs, which also have a broad intensity distribution at high efficacy, and are finding wide implementation in Cree’s omnidirectional A-lamps.

Lowes, Ted↗

DOE OSTI2018

Light Extraction System for OLED (LESO)

The DOE Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy is funding development of Solid-State Lighting (SSL) to replace incandescent and fluorescent technologies. A more aggressive innovation schedule could achieve site electricity consumption reductions from current projections of 40% to 60% by the year 2030 when compared to the no-LED scenario in the United States. These increased reductions would total an increase in savings of 395 TWh of energy. Based on preliminary data showing improvements of 2x in extraction efficiency with diffuser films, we will optimize surface relief structures to maximize the light extraction efficiency of OLED devices and test the optimized structures in prototype samples. To address the DOE desire for rapid SSL acceptance, Luminit, LLC, proposes to develop a new Light Extraction System for OLED (LESO) implemented in an ultraviolet (UV)-curable HRI polymer. The LESO uses optimized surface relief structures in high-index and low-index interfaces, which will significantly increase light extraction from the OLEDs. The LESO will significantly reduce environmental pollution compared to incandescent, compact fluorescent (CFL), and LED lamps. It will do so at a low price compared to other technologies, and with extremely high quality lighting (nearly perfect color matching, for example). Through LESO adoption, both CO 2 and other pollutants will be reduced by hundreds of megatons annually.

47 OTHER INSTRUMENTATION↗