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Search indexed NASA NTRS and DOE OSTI research on propulsion, heat transfer, battery materials and energy systems. Follow report and document links to the original sources.

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NASA NTRS1982

Potential benefits from a successful solar thermal program

Solar energy systems were investigated which complement nuclear and coal technologies as a means of reducing the U.S. dependence on imported petroleum. Solar Thermal Energy Systems (STES) represents an important category of solar energy technologies. STES can be utilized in a broad range of applications servicing a variety of economic sectors, and they can be deployed in both near-term and long-term markets. The net present value of the energy cost savings attributable to electric utility and IPH applications of STES were estimated for a variety of future energy cost scenarios and levels of R&D success. This analysis indicated that the expected net benefits of developing an STES option are significantly greater than the expected costs of completing the required R&D. In addition, transportable fuels and chemical feedstocks represent a substantial future potential market for STES. Due to the basic nature of this R&D activity, however, it is currently impossible to estimate the value of STES in these markets. Despite this fact, private investment in STES R&D is not anticipated due to the high level of uncertainty characterizing the expected payoffs.

Terasawa, K. L.↗

NASA NTRS1983

Solar thermal technologies - Potential benefits to U.S. utilities and industry

Terasawa, K. L.↗

DOE OSTI2022

Looking Beyond Bill Savings to Equity in Renewable Energy Microgrid Deployment

Microgrids powered by renewable energy can provide backup power to critical infrastructure during grid outages. These systems can also play an important role in advancing energy justice by providing economic, environmental, health, and resilience benefits for underserved communities. The value of microgrids is often measured by the economic savings and resilience provided, but there are other energy justice factors that should be considered. This paper describes a methodology for quantifying broader costs and benefits including utility bill savings, value of resilience, social cost of carbon, public health costs, and jobs associated with the construction and operation of microgrids. We evaluate these factors at three case study sites and find that including energy justice values in the cost-benefit analysis of microgrids can change investment decisions. When climate, health, resilience, and job creation are considered, cost-optimal microgrids include more renewable generation, leading to a 52-82% reduction in emissions and diesel fuel use. The net present values of the microgrids grow from negative $626,000-843,000 in the diesel only case to $10-16 million in the hybrid microgrid case and $12-19 million in the renewable microgrid case, indicating potential for greater microgrid deployment if energy justice values are incorporated in decision making. However, we also see large increases in capital expenses, which could limit deployment unless accompanied by innovative financing measures. These findings may be useful to communities as they seek to strengthen resilience to natural disasters while also improving public health, meeting climate goals, and providing economic opportunity for residents.

29 ENERGY PLANNING, POLICY, AND ECONOMY↗

NASA NTRS1979

Optimization of space manufacturing systems

Four separate analyses are detailed: transportation to low earth orbit, orbit-to-orbit optimization, parametric analysis of SPS logistics based on earth and lunar source locations, and an overall program option optimization implemented with linear programming. It is found that smaller vehicles are favored for earth launch, with the current Space Shuttle being right at optimum payload size. Fully reusable launch vehicles represent a savings of 50% over the Space Shuttle; increased reliability with less maintenance could further double the savings. An optimization of orbit-to-orbit propulsion systems using lunar oxygen for propellants shows that ion propulsion is preferable by a 3:1 cost margin over a mass driver reaction engine at optimum values; however, ion engines cannot yet operate in the lower exhaust velocity range where the optimum lies, and total program costs between the two systems are ambiguous. Heavier payloads favor the use of a MDRE. A parametric model of a space manufacturing facility is proposed, and used to analyze recurring costs, total costs, and net present value discounted cash flows. Parameters studied include productivity, effects of discounting, materials source tradeoffs, economic viability of closed-cycle habitats, and effects of varying degrees of nonterrestrial SPS materials needed from earth. Finally, candidate optimal scenarios are chosen, and implemented in a linear program with external constraints in order to arrive at an optimum blend of SPS production strategies in order to maximize returns.

Akin, D. L.↗

DOE OSTI2022

Economic analysis of CCUS: Accelerated development for CO 2 EOR and storage in residual oil zones under the context of 45Q tax credit

Residual oil zones (ROZ) undergoing CO 2 Enhanced Oil Recovery (CO 2 -EOR) may benefit from specific strategies to maximize their value. We evaluated several strategies for producing from a Permian Basin, West Texas, USA field’s ROZ. This ROZ lies below the main pay zone (MPZ) of the field. Such brownfield ROZs occur in the Permian Basin and elsewhere. Since brownfield ROZs are hydraulically connected to the MPZs, development sequences and schemes influence oil production, CO 2 storage, and net present value (NPV). We conducted economic assessments of various CO 2 injection/production schemes in the stacked ROZ-MPZ reservoir based on flow simulations of a high-resolution geocellular model built from wireline logs and core data and calibrated through production history matching. Flow simulations of water alternating gas (WAG) injection, such as switching injection from the MPZ to the ROZ and commingled production, were studied. Simulation results showed that simultaneous CO 2 injection into the MPZ and ROZ lead to the largest oil production and, generally, the largest NPV. If instead, CO 2 was simultaneously injected into the MPZ and ROZ, then into the ROZ alone, this maximized CO 2 storage. CO 2 storage can be used as a tax credit under the Internal Revenue Code, Section 45Q. Storage performance depends on the development approach and WAG ratio. Developing the ROZ increased storage compared to only producing from the MPZ. The WAG ratio to maximize oil production did not always yield the largest NPV. These findings are potentially applied to other Brownfield ROZs, which are common below San Andres reservoirs in the Permian Basin and other basins. ROZ development can increase oilfields’ NPV and carbon storage potential. Our study can serve as an analog for similar reservoirs. Here this work provides valuable insights into the further optimization of brownfield ROZ development and information for operators to plan to develop stacked ROZ-MPZ reservoirs.

32 ENERGY CONSERVATION, CONSUMPTION, AND UTILIZATI↗

DOE OSTI2022

Flexible FlueCO2

Carbon dioxide (CO2) emission reductions remain a significant challenge on the path to clean energy. There are increasing legislative, social, and environmental factors motivating CO2 emissions reduction from power plants with carbon capture and storage (CCS). CCS in natural gas combined cycle (NGCC) power plants is critical to achieve a net-zero carbon electricity grid. Enhanced 45Q tax credits provide new incentives, but currently available technologies are unable to profitably operate in grids with deep variable renewable penetration which require flexible NGCC operation. Luna Labs has developed the FlueCO2 membrane to enable a profitable NGCC-CCS process. The FlueCO2 membrane couples steam transport across the membrane to CO2 transport in the opposite direction, enabling high capture efficiencies and low energy costs even at low CO2 concentrations. The dual-phase membrane can operate in the range of typical flue gas temperatures and pressures and does not require temperature or pressure cycling. Luna Labs’ FlueCO2 technology enables flexible and profitable operation of NGCC plants with lower capital investment and impact on electricity prices. In this Phase 1 project, Luna Labs utilized experimental testing, modeling, process simulation, and standardized costing methodologies to evaluate the techno-economic value of a 650 MW greenfield NGCC plant with FlueCO2 (NGCC-FlueCO2). Key design requirements for operation were established and plant performance under load-leveling conditions was validated through computational fluid dynamics and process modeling. Luna Labs developed a dynamic modeling tool which modeled plant operational modes across a variety of tax structures and electricity pricing scenarios to project the overall Net Present Value (NPV) of the NGCC-FlueCO2. FlueCO2 minimizes the impact of CCS integration on plant operation by integrating directly into the NGCC heat recovery steam generator (HRSG). By tapping into the plant’s low-pressure (LP) steam, operators can divert LP steam to the greenfield NGCC and/or CCS process in response to dynamic markets. Since FlueCO2 will not significantly affect HRSG (or NGCC) operation, CCS only turns off during peak power demand (>$250/MWh). Under baseload conditions, FlueCO2 lowers the capital (37%), energy (36%) and carbon capture (<$40/tonne) costs and can increase the overall plant lifetime NPV by approximately ~$1B in comparison with NGCC solvent-based capture reference cases (NETL Case 31B). Luna Labs has shared its costing tools with several interested partners and customers, which follows a generalizable approach to costing analysis.

Kelly, Jesse↗

NASA NTRS1977

Cost benefit analysis of the transfer of NASA remote sensing technology to the state of Georgia

The author has identified the following significant results. First order benefits can generally be quantified, thus allowing quantitative comparisons of candidate land cover data systems. A meaningful dollar evaluation of LANDSAT can be made by a cost comparison with equally effective data systems. Users of LANDSAT data can be usefully categorized as performing three general functions: planning, permitting, and enforcing. The value of LANDSAT data to the State of Georgia is most sensitive to the parameters: discount rate, digitization cost, and photo acquisition cost. Under a constrained budget, LANDSAT could provide digitized land cover information roughly seven times more frequently than could otherwise be obtained. Thus on one hand, while the services derived from LANDSAT data in comparison to the baseline system has a positive net present value, on the other hand if the budget were constrained, more frequent information could be provided using the LANDSAT system than otherwise be obtained.

Zimmer, R. P.↗

DOE OSTI2024

Quantifying Investment Risk: Analysis of the Purchase Decision of a Nuclear Power Plant (Presentation)

Cost overruns are an ill-fated part of the deployment history of nuclear power plants (NPPs) in the United States, and yet studies increasingly show the important role nuclear technologies must play in decarbonizing the U.S. economy. Paradoxically, then, a key piece of a coherent decarbonization strategy depends on attracting investor action to a purchase where historical cost overruns have been sizable. To address this challenge, this study aims to develop a financial model that quantifies the risk of cost overruns in the decision-making process for purchasing advanced reactor concepts. Using the concept of value at risk (VaR), the model is built to evaluate financial risk nuclear construction with the aim to identify risk mitigation strategies. The objective is to identify strategies to mitigate cost-risk challenges and assess the potential reduction in investor risk exposure. This paper presents the initial development and preliminary verification of the financial risk analysis model. The development of this model involved a comprehensive approach to estimating financial risk over the operating life of NPP that stems from construction uncertainties. By utilizing net present value (NPV) with discounted cash flows, the model captures the complex interconnections of project costs, construction timelines, revenue, and uncertainties. Verifying the model involved testing historical data from previous reactor construction projects against the construction project of Vogtle 3 and 4. This paper’s results present the comparison of the preconstruction cost overrun prediction with the current cost estimates from a nearly complete Vogtle 3 and 4.

22 GENERAL STUDIES OF NUCLEAR REACTORS↗

DOE OSTI2024

Quantifying Investment Risk: Analysis of the Purchase Decision of a Nuclear Power Plant

Cost overruns are an ill-fated part of the deployment history of nuclear power plants (NPPs) in the United States, and yet studies increasingly show the important role nuclear technologies must play in decarbonizing the U.S. economy. Paradoxically, then, a key piece of a coherent decarbonization strategy depends on attracting investor action to a purchase where historical cost overruns have been sizeable. To address this challenge, this study aims to develop a financial model that quantifies risk of cost overruns in the decision-making process for purchasing advanced reactor concepts. Using the concept of Value at Risk (VaR), the model is built to evaluate financial risk nuclear construction with the aim to identify risk mitigation strategies. The objective is to identify strategies to mitigate cost-risk challenges and to assess the potential reduction in investor risk exposure. The paper presents the initial development and preliminary verification of the financial risk analysis model. The development of this model involved a comprehensive approach to estimating financial risk over the operating life of NPP that stems from construction uncertainties. By utilizing net present value (NPV) with discounted cash flows, the model captures the complex interconnections of project costs, construction timelines, revenue, and uncertainties. Verification of the model involved testing historical data from previous reactor construction projects against the construction project of Vogtle 3 and 4. The results of this paper present the comparison of the preconstruction cost overrun prediction with the current cost estimates from a nearly complete Vogtle 3 and 4.

29 ENERGY PLANNING, POLICY, AND ECONOMY↗

DOE OSTI2025

Microreactor-liquid metal battery system in energy markets: An evaluation of potential costs, technology, and policy impacts

Microreactors represent an emerging innovation in the nuclear industry; yet have been overshadowed by their high capital costs. With the Inflation Reduction Act of 2022 (IRA), new opportunities have emerged to improve the economics of microreactor systems. This work examines liquid metal batteries (LMB) as a value-adding technology as part of microreactor-LMB systems within three U.S. electricity markets: ERCOT, PJM, and MISO. Our investigation considers key uncertainties: the cost of microreactors, the performance of LMBs, and the eligible tax credit levels. To this end, we use a dispatch optimization to trace not only the changes in system economics but also to provide a granular picture of energy delivery within the systems. We find that even with favorable costs for microreactors, significant regional variations in the project sizing and returns exist across the markets. Our heuristic method identifies their non-electric application potentials beyond electricity and technical requirements to maximize returns. The results suggest that 12–39 % of reactor heat could be cost-effectively diverted to produce more valuable by-products in U.S. markets. Including the impacts of tax credits, we establish the outcomes of each provision with varying rates. Coupling an LMB to a microreactor consistently improves the net present value of a microreactor compared to its standalone operation. In conclusion, for reasonable assumed conditions, we quantify a heterogeneous impact of round-trip efficiency (RTE) and extended LMB service life across the three markets—a one-year extension in LMB service life is roughly equivalent to a 2.11 % improvement in RTE for ERCOT, 1.16 % for PJM, and 1.04 % for MISO.

22 - GENERAL STUDIES OF NUCLEAR REACTORS↗

DOE OSTI2022

Value Proposition of UV-Absorbers in PV Module Encapsulation

Various common crystalline silicon cell technologies were exposed to UVA radiation (1.24 Wm-2 nm-1 at 340 nm peak) on the front and back faces at 45 degrees Celsius for periods up to 3000 h, representing about 3 y of solar exposure in Phoenix, Arizona, USA. The resulting degradation of the open-circuit voltage and short-circuit current is presented. Of the various cell types examined, significant levels of degradation were seen in all cases. Less degradation was generally found after UV irradiation of cell fronts and older cell types, whereas a bifacial PERC type exposed on the rear showed about 25% degradation in short circuit current, attributable to lack of a diffused surface field. Selected cells were exposed to UV irradiation with the addition of long pass UV filters to replicate UV-absorbers in encapsulants. Modern cell designs are sensitive to UV-ID because of reduced or eliminated front and back surface field and increased dependence on high quality surface passivation. Single transformation of the independent variable (t, kW h/m^2) could be used to achieve a linear model of the data to extrapolate to 50 y. Solar Advisor Model (SAM) shows appropriate filtering of UV-irradiation can improve LCOE and net present value of plant. Some advanced cell types are seen to be UV-resistant (cell level solutions also exist). Solutions therefore exist on the cell, glass, and encapsulant level. Changes over time in each of these would also need to be considered (solarization, encapsulant browning...).

ENGINEERING,SOLAR ENERGY↗

DOE OSTI2023

Comparative Techno-economic Analysis and Life Cycle Assessment of Producing High-Value Chemicals and Fuels from Waste Plastic via Conventional Pyrolysis and Thermal Oxo-degradation

The rapid rise in global plastic production in recent decades has resulted in the massive generation of plastic waste. Over 75% of the plastic waste generated in the United States was sent to landfills, with a meager 8.7% recycled. Plastics are valuable feedstocks for platform chemicals and fuels. Chemical upcycling of waste high-density polyethylene (HDPE) is gaining more attention as a potentially feasible and environmentally friendly plastic waste management technology. Conventional pyrolysis (CPY) and thermal oxo-degradation (TOD) are two chemical upcycling technologies actively researched for decomposing waste HDPE into valuable chemicals and fuels. However, there are few studies on the techno-economic analysis (TEA) and life cycle assessment (LCA) of these technologies for converting waste HDPE to valuable products. This study conducts a comparative TEA and LCA study of the thermochemical decomposition of waste HDPE to produce gaseous (ethylene and propylene) and liquid (naphtha, diesel, and wax) products by CPY and TOD. The study elucidates and compares the impact of hydrocracking longer chain hydrocarbons to produce more valuable products on the TEA and LCA. The TEA showed that the fixed capital investment could range from $\$32.5$ million for TOD without hydrocracking to $\$244$ million for CPY with hydrocracking scenarios. Annual revenues range from $\$28.1$ million to $\$71.5$ million in favor of scenarios with hydrocracking. However, the net present value ranges from $\$1.4$ million to $\$265.8$ million in favor of scenarios without hydrocracking. Sensitivity analysis showed that fixed capital cost, facility capacity, and product prices have the biggest impact on the process economics of the facilities, while utilities and waste transportation to refineries have the biggest impact on environmental impacts. Here, the LCA showed that primary products from scenarios without hydrocracking can be more environmentally friendly than virgin products from petroleum processes. However, TOD and CPY with hydrocracking primary products have more emissions than those of virgin products.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗

DOE OSTI2024

Innovating the next generation of commercial smart building software

Nearly 30% of commercial building energy use is wasted due to equipment faults and HVAC controls problems. The result is increased emissions, compromised comfort and productivity, and less reliable coordination of building power needs with a clean grid. The energy impact alone represents $17 billion in potential savings. Today’s smart building software provides a robust solution to address these operational deficiencies. Energy management and information systems (EMIS) are saving up to 9% on average, with two-year paybacks. They are being incorporated into energy management processes, commissioning services, and utility programs. As effective as they are, two barriers prevent even deeper benefits; limited personnel to fix problems once they are identified, and the expense and time to manually implement changes in control systems. In partnership with the research community, the EMIS industry is developing new capabilities to overcome these barriers. Moving beyond siloed products for either fault detection and diagnostics, or optimal control, these new capabilities empower users to not only automatically identify faults, but also to push corrective action, and control improvements to their buildings. In this paper, several areas for enhancements are documented: ‘one-time’ correction of faults such as setpoints, schedules, and economizer lockouts; short-term active testing for automated proportional integral derivative (PID) loop tuning and functional testing; and continuous supervisory control for demand flexibility and year-round efficiency. Results are presented from a pair of partner implementations out of a dozen providers integrating these enhancements into their products, including field tests from across the country, and insights into operator acceptance and integration into operations and maintenance practices.

Casillas, Armando↗

DOE OSTI2024

Environmental and economic analyses of chemical recycling via dissolution of waste polyethylene terephthalate

Globally, more than 1000 organizations and 175 nations are facing the plastic waste problem and have realized the need to transition from “linear-to-circular” economy of plastics. While the current mechanical recycling technologies for plastics are struggling to increase the U.S. plastic recycling rates beyond 9%, chemical recycling technologies become important complementary technologies to the predominant mechanical recycling that are needed to realize the circular economy in plastics supply chains. Dissolution is one such chemical recycling technology that can recycle waste plastic back into high-quality virgin grade plastic. However, the environmental and economic impacts of chemical recycling of waste polyethylene terephthalate (PET) via dissolution technology using a green solvent are unknown. Our study evaluated environmental metrics such as greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and cumulative energy demand, and economic metrics such as net present value (NPV), minimum selling price, payback period, return on investment, and discounted internal rate of return for three dissolution processes with polymer recovery via anti-solvent, evaporation, and cooling precipitation techniques. The dissolution process with evaporation technique was the most economically favorable, whereas that with cooling technique was the most environmentally favorable. The anti-solvent approach had low economic performance and the highest environmental impacts. The NPV for all of these technologies ranged from $2.67 MM to $10.93 MM for a capacity of 8,400 MT/year and was found to be the highest for dissolution with evaporation approach and the least for anti-solvent approach. The cradle-to-gate GHG emissions and energy demand for PET dissolution processes ranged from 1.33-3.77 kg CO2-eq/kg of chemically recycled (CR) PET and18.9-56.1 MJ/kg of CR-PET, respectively. These economic and environmental metrics will be helpful in evaluating the sustainability of circular PET supply chains in the U.S.

09 BIOMASS FUELS↗

DOE OSTI2026

Design and optimization of processes for recovering rare earth elements from end‐of‐life permanent magnets

Recovery of rare earth elements (REEs) from end-of-life (EOL) products represents a strategic opportunity to strengthen the domestic supply chain for rare earth elements. This work presents a superstructure-based optimization framework for finding the most economical processing pathway for different EOL rare earth permanent magnets (REPMs). The framework evaluates state-of-the-art technologies across four processing stages—disassembly, demagnetization, leaching and extraction, and precipitation and calcination—using net present value (NPV) maximization and cost of recovery (COR) minimization objectives. A novel bottom-up costing framework for hydrogen decrepitation is also introduced. Two feedstocks were considered: REPMs from EOL hard disk drives (HDDs), and electric and hybrid electric vehicles (EVs and HEVs). While HDD recycling proved unprofitable due to limited feedstock availability, EVs/HEVs were profitable across a range of parameters and cost estimates. Therefore, our findings suggest that the proposed EOL EV/HEV recycling process may be economical and is worthy of further investigation.

29 ENERGY PLANNING, POLICY, AND ECONOMY↗

DOE OSTI2021

Specialty chemicals production case study: Economic analysis of modular chemical process intensification versus conventional stick‐built approaches

Abstract The beneficial synergies of chemical process intensification and plant modularization present a unique step‐wise advancement opportunity for many chemical manufacturers, but economic case studies are needed to raise awareness of such opportunities. The primary objective of this case study is to better understand the business case economics of a specialty chemical plant using modular chemical process intensification (MCPI), by comparing it with that of a conventional stick‐built (CSB) plant that produces the same product at the same production capacity. When comparing MCPI against CSB approaches for a plant project strategy decision, analysts should thoroughly understand and model the differences and similarities in scope bases. The MCPI approach for this case study benefitted from dramatic reductions in capital expenditures (CAPEX). A sizeable reduction in plant spatial volume likely explains some of these reductions. Sizeable operational expenditure (OPEX) reductions with the MCPI plant appear to be associated with the reduced operator staffing required from converting a labor‐intensive batch process into an automated, continuous flow process. Traditional project investment economic measures strongly favored the MCPI case for the design, construction, and operation of the specialty chemical plant. The net present value for the MCPI case was nearly twice that for the CSB case over a ten‐year period, and the payback period for the CSB case was nearly five times longer than that of the MCPI case. The opinion‐based perspective of the study participant identified significant contributors to superior MCPI economic performance for this case study. With the two conditions of low MCPI CAPEX and high product profit margin, economic analysis indicates that incorporation of a backup MCPI train, for operational redundancy when downtime occurs, is a very beneficial strategy.

O'Connor, James T.↗

DOE OSTI2022

National-scale impacts on wind energy production under curtailment scenarios to reduce bat fatalities

Wind energy often plays a major role in meeting renewable energy policy objectives; however, increased deployment can raise concerns regarding the impacts of wind plants on certain wildlife. Particularly, estimates suggest hundreds of thousands of bat fatalities occur annually at wind plants across North America, with potential implications for the viability of several bat species. One approach to reducing bat fatalities is shutting down (or curtailing) turbines when bats are most at risk, such as at night during relatively low wind speed periods throughout summer and early autumn. While curtailment has consistently been shown to reduce bat fatalities, the lost power production reduces revenues for wind plants. This study conducted simulations with a range of curtailment scenarios across the contiguous United States to examine sensitivities of annual energy production (AEP) loss and potential impacts on economic metrics for future wind energy deployment. We found that AEP reduction can vary across the country from less than 1% to more than 10% for different curtailment scenarios. From an estimated 2891 gigawatts (GW) of simulated economically viable wind capacity (measured by a positive net present value), we found the mid curtailment scenario (6.0 m/s wind speed cut-in from July 1 through October 31) reduced the quantity of economic wind capacity by 274 GW or 9.5%. Our results indicate that high levels of curtailment could substantially reduce the future footprint of financially viable wind energy. In this context, future work that illuminates cost-effective strategies to minimize curtailment while reducing bat fatalities would be of value.

17 WIND ENERGY↗

DOE OSTI2021

Urban cells: Extending the energy hub concept to facilitate sector and spatial coupling

The rapid growth of urban areas and concerns over climate change make it vital to improve the energy sustainability of cities. Understanding the complex interactions within different sectors (sectoral) and localities (spatial) of cities plays a crucial role in improving efficiency and sustainability, which is extremely challenging due to the complex urban morphology. State-of-the-art energy concepts do not facilitate a detailed consideration of both sectoral and spatial coupling that energy infrastructure maintains at the urban scale. This has become a significant challenge when designing interconnected urban energy infrastructure. The Urban Cell concept is introduced to address this bottleneck. A novel computational model using a modular approach is introduced to create an interconnected urban infrastructure, including the energy, building, and transportation sectors. Optimal sizing of the distributed energy system (including renewables, energy storage, and dispatchable sources) and optimal urban morphology is determined within a modular unit. A game-theoretic approach is used to model the interactions between urban cells (modular units). The study revealed that the urban cell concept can reduce the net present value of the interconnected energy infrastructure by 37% while increasing the installed renewable energy capacity by 25%. This demonstrates the benefit potential of urban cells and the importance of considering interactions between different sectors and different parts within a city. The Urban Cell concept can be used to present the complex interactions maintained within a city.

Perera, ATD↗