Industrial Heat Pumps: Electrifying Industry’s Process Heat Supply
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Rightor, Ed↗
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Hybrid Solar Heat Generation Modelling and Cases: Preprint
Renewable thermal energy systems (RTES) harness renewable energy sources to provide services for space heating and cooling, district heating, domestic hot water, and industrial process heat (IPH). The use of low-pressure steam generated by the combustion of fossil fuels is common today to provide process heat for industrial facilities. Solar IPH (SIPH) technologies could economically replace the steam or heat needs at many industrial sites by providing high-temperature pressurized hot water, a heat transfer fluid (HTF) such as synthetic-oil, or direct steam (Kurup and Turchi, 2015). RTES could be hybridized with technology options or combined with the existing heat supply (e.g. fuels), to give options for targeted IPH application and the reduction of fuel consumption. This work has tested hybrid system modelling approaches. Initial results show when a natural gas (NG) burner that feeds an IPH application of 300°C, has both air and NG streams pre-heated with a solar field/RTES exit temperature of 180°C (via an HTF), a 13% NG offset is possible. NG offsets reach up to 26%, when the RTES exit temperatures are at 300°C for a given annual capacity factor of 24%. This can be even higher with addition of thermal energy storage (TES).
43 PARTICLE ACCELERATORS↗
Techno-economic evaluation of industrial heat pump applications in US pulp and paper, textile, and automotive industries
Industrial process heat decarbonization through electrification could contribute significantly to climate change mitigation efforts. In the US industry, thermal processes accounted for more than two-thirds of the total final energy demand in 2021. Cross-cutting electrification technologies like industrial heat pumps are suitable for the process heat supply to several industrial unit operations in a sustainable way while also improving overall energy efficiency. This study employs a bottom-up approach to investigate the techno-enviro-economic potentials of deploying high-temperature and steam-generating heat pumps in US textile, pulp and paper, and automotive sectors in different timeframes. The results show that the annual technical potential energy and CO 2 savings by electrifying heat supply are 310 PJ (or 36% of the projected energy demand) and 28 MtCO 2 (or 71% of the projected CO 2 emissions) in 2050 respectively, however, these incur additional costs in each sector (ranging between 5 and 18 $\$$/GJ). The required heating capacity of industrial heat pumps is estimated at 15 GW, which translates roughly into a market of over 6000 heat pump units and an investment volume of $\$$7 billion in the studied processes. Although there may be individual cost-effective opportunities for electrifying heat supply in specific industrial sites, the overall costs are estimated to be high in the three industrial sectors due to the large disparity between electricity and natural gas prices and low heat source temperatures. To overcome the identified techno-economic barriers, comprehensive action plans for different stakeholders are also given. This study provides novel insights that should inform policymakers’ and executives’ decisions about the electrification of the current and future US industrial heat supply in relevant industrial sectors.
32 ENERGY CONSERVATION, CONSUMPTION, AND UTILIZATI↗
Guideline for Characterizing and Evaluating a Candidate Project Site for Solar Thermal Applications
This document presents a structured procedure for characterizing and evaluating candidate project sites for concentrating solar power (CSP) and solar heat for industrial processes (SHIP) applications. The objective is to provide project developers, researchers, and other stakeholders with a consistent, technology-agnostic framework for early-stage site assessment, enabling informed decision-making prior to significant investment in project development. Site selection is a critical factor in project success or failure for both CSP and SHIP projects. Key factors such as solar resource availability, land characteristics, environmental and regulatory constraints, infrastructure availability, and community context are determined by the choice of project site and can materially impact project performance, cost, schedule, and overall viability. This procedure is designed to systematically evaluate these factors, identify potential fatal flaws, and prioritize the most favorable candidate sites for further development. The process begins with rapid screening-level evaluation, using publicly available data to assess solar resource, land availability and suitability, zoning and land-use compatibility, and exclusion zones such as protected lands or sensitive habitats. Sites that meet the minimum screening criteria advance to a more detailed characterization. Subsequent sections of this report provide guidance for a next-level assessment of the most important technical and environmental parameters, including: 1) Solar resource quality, variability, and uncertainty using multiyear datasets and, where appropriate, on-site measurement campaigns; 2) Meteorological conditions such as wind, temperature, extreme weather events, and soiling impacts; 3) Land characteristics including slope, shading, and geotechnical conditions; and 4) Environmental and regulatory considerations, including permitting processes, endangered species, cultural resources, and visual impacts. The procedure also addresses infrastructure and integration considerations, including: 1) Grid interconnection requirements for CSP power generation projects; 2) Electrical and operational integration for SHIP facilities; 3) Water availability, quality, and permitting constraints, which are particularly critical for CSP in arid regions; and 4) Site access, construction logistics, and availability of workforce and supporting services. Recognizing the importance of social and economic context, the procedure includes evaluation of community engagement factors, such as stakeholder sentiment, proximity to sensitive visual receptors, workforce development opportunities, and local economic incentives. The outputs of these assessments are synthesized in a cost and risk evaluation, translating site characteristics into expected impacts on capital cost, operating cost, schedule, and technical risk. This is complemented by screening-level performance modeling, including 8760 simulations and long-term projections, to quantify expected energy or thermal output, assess variability thereof, and support comparison between candidate sites. Finally, the procedure provides high-level guidance on a structured go/no-go decision framework, categorizing sites based on identified risks and constraints, and outlining a clear path forward to feasibility studies and front-end engineering design for viable projects. By standardizing the site characterization process across both CSP and SHIP applications, this guideline aims to: 1) Improve consistency and transparency in early-stage project evaluation; 2) Reduce development risk and avoid investment in nonviable project sites; 3) Support collaboration between developers, researchers, and public agencies; and 4) Accelerate successful deployment of concentrating solar technologies for both power generation and industrial process heat.
14 SOLAR ENERGY↗
Solar Heat for Industrial Processes: Integration with Chemical Reactors
The integration of solar thermal systems with chemical reactors has been proposed as part of a larger effort to develop and deploy solar heat for industrial processes (SHIP) technologies. A strong motivation for SHIP processes and technologies is the potential for high thermal efficiency coupled with low-cost thermal energy storage (TES) which can enable commercial deployment of such systems. While there are different ways to categorize SHIP technologies, one important such distinction is between directly irradiated systems and indirect off-sun process driven by a SHIP system. While directly irradiated systems can provide high thermal efficiencies and high fluxes, they usually require complex engineering solutions due to the need for redesigning the established processes and unit operations. In most cases, it is also more challenging to couple such a process to a TES system, losing some of the benefits of SHIP. On the other hand, using a SHIP system to drive an industrial process off-sun can allow better integration with existing process chains, easier TES capabilities, and potential for more applications fitting a specific SHIP technology. However, the integration of SHIP systems with the industrial processes is not fully explored in detail, especially in the case of high-temperature processes such as reforming, cracking, cement manufacturing, and iron/steelmaking. Many of these systems require heating fluxes of >50 kW/m^2, supplied via combustion of hydrocarbons in a fire box and benefitting from radiative heat transfer between the flue gases and the reaction zones. As such, using SHIP systems for such processes is more complex than providing the same thermal input in the form of a heat transfer medium (HTM) entering the reactor, kiln, or furnace. Moreover, in case convective heat transfer using SHIP is envisioned, for example using supercritical CO2 as the HTM from a particle receiver, the thermal integration might be more challenging than initially envisioned: lower heat transfer coefficients and limited approach temperature might require large flow rates, causing a mismatch between the process thermal requirements and the thermal capacity of the SHIP system. In addition, even if the heat exchange between SHIP and reactor is effective, there is still a cold leg HTM at the reaction temperature or slightly below it. Chemical plants usually include a set of heat exchangers, heat recovery steam generators, and even power generation units - in a tightly integrated design - to recover the flue gases which are eventually vented. With SHIP systems mostly operating on a closed HTM loop, bottoming the cold leg is crucial. In this talk, we will present different modeling results for a variety of syngas production reactions, using catalytic and chemical looping processes, and discuss some of the challenges and design considerations for off-sun chemical reactors using SHIP systems.
14 SOLAR ENERGY↗
Bottom-up assessment of industrial heat pump applications in U.S. Food manufacturing
Decarbonization of the industrial process heat supply through electrification could contribute significantly to climate change mitigation efforts. In the U.S. industry, thermal processes accounted for more than two-thirds of the total final energy demand in 2021. Cross-cutting electrification technologies like industrial heat pumps are suitable for the process heat supply to several industrial unit operations in a sustainable way while also improving overall energy efficiency. This study employs a bottom-up approach to investigate the techno-enviro-economic potentials of deploying high-temperature and steam-generating heat pumps in the major U.S. food manufacturing sectors in different timeframes. The results show that the annual technical potential energy and CO 2 savings by electrifying process heat supply are 325 PJ (or approximately 20% of the total final energy demand in U.S. food manufacturing) and 31 MtCO 2 (equivalent to the annual CO 2 emissions from over 6 million cars in the U.S.) in 2050, respectively; however, these incur additional costs in each sector. Although there may be individual cost-effective opportunities for electrifying heat supply in specific industrial sites, the overall costs are estimated to be high in the food sectors due to the large disparity between electricity and natural gas prices and low heat source temperatures. To overcome the identified techno-economic barriers, comprehensive action plans for different stakeholders are needed. In conclusion, this study provides novel insights that should inform policymakers’ and executives’ decisions about the electrification of the current and future U.S. industrial heat supply in relevant industrial sectors.
29 ENERGY PLANNING, POLICY, AND ECONOMY↗
Ultra-High Operation Temperature SiC-matrix Solar Thermal Air Receiver (HOTSSTAR) enabled by additive manufacturing: Test Facility & Performance Evaluations
Solar Heat for Industrial Processes (SHIP) cavity receivers are capable of generating electricity or industrial process heat by absorbing thermal energy from solar radiation, focused on a small area. The concentration of solar radiation on the small area of the receiver enables the achievement of high temperatures (ranging from 400°C to 1,100°C) of a working fluid, thus making the SHIP technology thermodynamically comparable with conventional power plants. A volumetric receiver consists of a porous structure-generally made of silicon carbide or metal, which absorbs solar radiation and converts it into heat energy. Heat energy from the porous materials is then transferred to the fluid following through them. A volumetric receiver acts as a convective heat exchanger, transferring heat to the fluid through convection. Open-loop volumetric receivers work with air at atmospheric pressure and are suitable for single-cycle or multi-cycle energy plants. A Model Based Systems Engineering (MBSE) approach was used to develop a test bed at Sandia national Laboratories (SNL) capable of demonstrating an open-loop volumetric air receiver developed by General Electric Aerospace (GE Aerospace). This paper presents the development of the various MBSE methods, test bed, and testing operations for the GE air receiver, which was experimentally demonstrated to achieve 1,350°C for over 3 hours of operation and an approximate 70% receiver efficiency. By being able to achieve such high temperatures >1,000°C, this work provides the potential to support many SHIP industrial use cases.
14 SOLAR ENERGY↗
Thermal storage for industrial process and reject heat
Industrial production uses about 40 percent of the total energy consumed in the United States. The major share of this is derived from fossil fuel. Potential savings of scarce fuel is possible through the use of thermal energy storage (TES) of reject or process heat for subsequent use. Three especially significant industries where high temperature TES appears attractive - paper and pulp, iron and steel, and cement are discussed. Potential annual fuel savings, with large scale implementation of near-term TES systems for these three industries, is nearly 9,000,000 bbl of oil.
Duscha, R. A.↗
Technology Strategy Assessment: Findings from Storage Innovations 2030 Thermal Energy Storage
The concept of thermal energy storage (TES) can be traced back to early 19th century, with the invention of the ice box to prevent butter from melting. Modern TES development began with building heating and cooling and concentrated solar thermal technologies for power generation in the early 1900s and late 1970s, respectively. TES systems provide many advantages compared with other long-duration energy storage (LDES) technologies, which include low costs, long operational lives, high energy density, synchronous power generation capability with inertia that inherently stabilizes the grid, and the ability to output both heat and electricity. TES Use Cases TES technologies can couple with most renewable energy systems, including wind, photovoltaic, and concentrated solar thermal energy, and can be used for heat-to-heat, heat-to-electricity, electricity-to-heat, and electricity-to-electricity (bidirectional electricity) applications. The three types of TES that have heat as an input or output are grouped together for the purposes of this report. Retrofitting retired thermal power plants can be a potential cost-effective option for TES with electricity output because they both use a similar thermal-to-electricity type of conversion. Additionally, TES can directly serve heat demand for buildings and industrial processes, displacing fossil fuels to achieve broad decarbonization. Bidirectional Electricity Figure 1 shows a bidirectional electricity TES (ETES) architecture that is emerging as a prime technology for LDES at a grid scale. The ETES technology can utilize existing TES technology infrastructures, has no geological limitations (such as mountains and water for pumped storage hydro, underground natural caverns for compressed-air energy storage, etc.), and is capable of deployment anywhere in the United States and the world for broad uses. Particularly, ETES technology can be placed at retired fossil-fueled thermal power plants to reuse decommissioned assets, protect job security in associated communities, and provide resilient and high-inertia (i.e., spinning) power to the grid. Heat Input and Output There also are many ways to integrate TES within heat-to-electricity, heat-to-heat, and electricity-to-heat applications, such as those used in concentrating solar power (CSP), buildings, district heating, and industry process heat applications. These categories can be further classified for low- and high-temperature applications. High-temperature thermal energy storage (HTTES) heat-to-electricity TES applications are currently associated with CSP deployments for power generation. TES with CSP has been deployed in the Southwestern United States with rich solar resources and has proved its value to the electric grid. Electricity-to-heat and heat-to-heat HTTES applications present great potential for decarbonizing energy-intensive industrial process heat applications [8, 9], such as iron ore processing, iron smelting, cement production, glass manufacturing, mineral processing, and chemical production. Some industrial processes require process heat at temperatures > 1,400°C, so HTTES can be utilized to reduce fuel consumption in those processes through fuel, oxidizer, and process material pre-heating. Thermal energy storage for augmenting existing industrial process heat applications makes a much more attractive economic case because the energy penalty due to thermal-to-electric conversion is eliminated. Co-located applications of power production and heat also can add to the value stacking of integrating utility-scale TES; however, these scenarios are very case specific and not practically possible in many cases. These constraints are primarily attributed to the existing infrastructure being designed, developed, and constructed for many decades around the most economically feasible technologies, such as electricity and a selection of fossil fuels for heat input. Low-temperature TES can be utilized for building and district heating and cooling, as well as some process heat applications in electricity-to-heat and heat-to-heat configurations. Lower temperature TES (LTTES) can be added to heat pump equipment (electric input), either directly interacting with the refrigerant in the condenser or evaporator, or through a secondary heat transfer fluid. It also can be integrated in the building envelope or within the ducts of the heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC) system. Cost-effective integration of TES into buildings adds significant cost, and it is one of the key barriers preventing the commercialization and deployment of TES. The optimal strategy for integrating TES with buildings has yet to be determined for various applications of TES. Nevertheless, thermal storage materials are far less costly per unit of energy stored than electricity storage materials. This means that thermal storage has the potential to reduce the cost to society of energy storage.
25 ENERGY STORAGE↗
Thermal storage for industrial process and reject heat
Industrial production uses about 40% of the total energy consumed in the United States. The major share of this is derived from fossil fuel. Potential savings of scarce fuel is possible through the use of thermal energy storage (TES) of reject or process heat for subsequent use. Results of study contracts awarded by the Department of Energy (DOE) and managed by the NASA Lewis Research Center have identified three especially significant industries where high temperature TES appears attractive - paper and pulp, iron and steel, and cement. Potential annual fuel savings with large scale implementation of near-term TES systems for these three industries is nearly 9 million bbl of oil.
Duscha, R. A.↗
Renewable Thermal Energy Systems Designed for Industrial Process Solutions in Multiple Industries
The need for renewable heat in industry is vital for the next decade and beyond. Industrial decarbonization is a key area that must be accelerated, to foster the removal of fossil fuels from the provision of heat, especially at low temperatures. This paper looks at the development and results of case studies for understanding the economics and potential for renewable thermal energy systems (RTES), particularly in hybrid configurations to provide industrial process heat (IPH). For the case studies, these include non-concentrating e.g., heat pumps, and concentrating collectors e.g., parabolic trough collectors and direct steam generation (DSG)-linear Fresnel collectors (LFCs). The results show that a levelized cost of heat (LCOH) of $6-$8 per million British Thermal Units (MMBTU) is possible, depending on the direct normal irradiance (DNI) and the system sizing e.g., to increase the solar fractions. In Arizona for example, with a DNI of 7.36 kWh/m2/day, the base case for the DSG-LFC system with 6hrs of thermal energy storage could potentially meet a 1 MWth load 80% of the year.
concentrated solar thermal↗
Analysis and Optimization of a Novel Hexagonal Waveguide Concentrator for Solar Thermal Applications
This paper analyzes a novel, cost-effective planar waveguide solar concentrator design that is inspired by cellular hexagonal structures in nature with the benefits of facile installation and low operation and maintenance cost. A coupled thermal and optical analysis of solar irradiation through an ideal hexagonal waveguide concentrator integrated with a linear receiver is presented, along with a cost analysis methodology, to establish the upper limit of performance. The techno-economic model, coupled with numerical optimization, is used to determine designs that maximized power density and minimized the cost of heat in the temperature range of 100–250 °C, which constitutes more than half of the industrial process heat demand. Depending on the incident solar irradiation and the application temperature, the cost of heat for the optimal design configuration ranged between 0.1–0.27 $/W and 0.075–0.18 $/W for waveguide made of ZK7 glass and polycarbonate, respectively. A techno-economic analysis showed the potential of the technology to achieve cost as low as 80 $/m2 and 61 $/m2 for waveguide made of ZK7 glass and polycarbonate material, respectively, which is less than half the cost of state-of-the-art parabolic trough concentrators. Overall, the hexagonal waveguide solar concentrator technology shows immense potential for decarbonizing the industrial process heat and thermal desalination sectors.
14 SOLAR ENERGY↗
Economic solution for low carbon process heat: A horizontal, compact high temperature gas reactor
In 2018, nuclear energy generated 55% of United States’ and one third of the world’s carbon free electricity, making nuclear energy a key tool in efforts to mitigate climate change before 2050. However, the current nuclear technology, light water reactors (LWRs), is limited to 300°C, so it cannot be used to decarbonize industrial process heat which accounts for 12% of US greenhouse gas emissions. High temperature gas reactors (HTGRs) can meet the high temperature demand with carbon free nuclear heat. The estimated cost of HTGRs, such as the Next Generation Nuclear Plant (NGNP), are even higher than state-of-the-art LWRs. In this paper, we expanded our nuclear cost estimating tool to include HTGRs and find that the NGNP overnight capital costs were 32% higher than an advanced LWR per unit capacity. The higher cost will naturally result in larger risk to cost overrun as recently experienced by larger LWRs in western nations. With a design-to-build mindset to minimize cost and construction risk, we introduce the horizontal, compact HTGR (HC-HTGR). The reactor core and steam generator are mounted horizontally on rails and in-line with one another, decreasing the size of the reactor building relative to the power capacity four times when compared to traditional HTGRs. The HC-HTGR reduced overnight civil structure costs by 42%, indirect costs by 38%, and total capital costs by 20% from NGNP. We discussed the required engineering of new systems for the HC-HTGR including vessel supports, the reactor cavity cooling system, and steam generator design. Finally, we estimated the fuel and operations costs of the HC-HTGR, and a survey of low-carbon industrial process heat technology showed the HC-HTGR can deliver a highly competitive levelized cost of heat in the range of $6.13–12.48/GJ.
21 SPECIFIC NUCLEAR REACTORS AND ASSOCIATED PLANTS↗
First Solar Thermal Energy Planner (STEP 1) and Nationwide Industrial Heat and Power Analysis
The First Solar Thermal Energy Planner (STEP 1) and Nationwide Industrial Heat and Power Analysis (aka the STEP 1 Project or the Project) aimed to (1) developed a brand-new web tool that could provide decision support through free, rapid techno-economic analysis of behind-the-meter solar+storage systems for industrial process heat and (2) conduct high-level analyses of the cost-competitiveness of the same systems across the US in key sectors. The STEP 1 web tool collects key location, land availability, thermal load profile, proccess heat temperature and media, and other key parameters through an easy-to-use user interface (UI). The UI was designed to meet the user at their level of understanding by minimizing the number of required inputs as much as possible while including options for more nuanced inputs if the user desires. STEP 1 advises users on which solar thermal tehcnologies that could fit their needs based on the inputs provided (namely process media and temperature). The tool can model a wide range of solar thermal technologies including flat plate collectors, evacuated tubes, parabolic troughs, linear Fresnel, and molten salt towers all with corresponding thermal energy storage (TES) - solar PV with resistive heating and TES is also included. Once the parameters are collected, a nominal thermal energy production profile for the facility's location is generated using NREL's System Advisory Model (SAM) and then passed to a modified version of NREL's REopt platform to optimize the size (capacity) and dispatch of the solar+storage system to minimize lifecycle costs subject to energy balance, fuel and electricity rates, emission reductions goals, and other constraints. This entire process takes less than 20 minutes, is completely free, requires zero coding skills, and provides the user with a high-level assessment on the techno-economic feasability of deploying solar+storage systems for their energy needs. In addition to the development of the STEP 1 web tool, the project completed two complementary analyses focused on leveraging the backend code of STEP 1, public industrial facility locations and fuel consumption data, and key sector information to assess the economic opportunity of reducing fuel costs at various levels of capacity factor around the US. Both analyses found that there are key markets, locations, industrial sectors (namely food and beverage), and degrees of offset where solar thermal technologies could be cost-effectively deployed, highlighting a key market entry point for these technologies, and assessing deployment potential. In summary, the STEP 1 project improved the opportunities for solar+storage systems to expand into the industrial process heat market through breaking down barriers to assessing these technologies.
14 SOLAR ENERGY↗
Renewable Thermal Energy Systems: Systemic Challenges and Transformational Policies (Report 2)
Two important challenges for RTES are the need for significant further innovation and deployment, particularly in the United States. In the face of continued success of other renewable energy technologies, such as solar photovoltaics (PV) and land-based wind energy for electricity, it is worthwhile to evaluate the current state of select RTES technologies in the context of technology innovation systems and energy transitions. This report marks a departure from the existing body of research we are aware of and have contributed to relating to RTES applications for industrial process heat in the United States. Our objectives for this report are fourfold: 1) Begin considering the challenges of RTES deployment in the United States through application of socio-technical and transitions frameworks; 2) Begin applying the theory of RTES as configurational technology innovation systems in the United States and for industrial process heat specifically; 3) Review RTES innovation, policies, and market formation activities in the contexts of Objectives 1 and 2; 4) Identify future paths for RTES research. Ultimately, the challenges associated with scaling the deployment of RTES in the United States are related to the need to develop a well-functioning innovation system that can overcome resistance from a highly stable socio-technical regime within a shrinking window of time to address the climate crisis, U.S. industrial competitiveness, and volatile energy commodity price shocks. Current efforts toward scaling for RTES applications in industry and buildings emphasize the need for further cost reductions, but not for interventions that support actors and their interactions and that increase the legitimacy of the technologies. As a result, there are significant opportunities to analyze the social contexts of RTES that can then be used to inform the design of effective, transformational policy portfolios.
32 ENERGY CONSERVATION, CONSUMPTION, AND UTILIZATI↗
Renewable Thermal Energy Systems Designed for Industrial Process Solutions in Multiple Industries
Industrial decarbonization is a key area that must be accelerated, to foster the removal of fossil fuels from the provision of heat, especially at low temperatures less than 300 degrees C. This paper looks at the results of two case studies for understanding the economics and potential for renewable thermal energy systems (RTES), particularly in hybrid configurations to provide industrial process heat (IPH). The first case study looks at heat pumps for district heating, and the second, the use of linear Fresnel collectors (LFCs) coupled with phase change material (PCM) thermal energy storage (TES) for direct steam generation (DSG). Using district heat as an input for the heat pump, three cases were run harvesting energy from ambient water (5 degrees C), sewage water (20 degrees C), and a solar collector (35 degrees C). Accounting for elevated costs of infrastructure for each heat source, the levelized cost of heat (LCOH) of the first case study ranged from $4-$15 per million British Thermal Units (MMBTU). For the second case study modeling LFCs with PCM and TES, the results show that a LCOH of $9-$15 per MMBTU is possible, depending on the direct normal irradiance.
concentrated solar thermal↗
Renewable Thermal Energy Systems Designed for Industrial Process Solutions in Multiple Industries: Preprint
Industrial decarbonization is a key area that must be accelerated, to foster the removal of fossil fuels from the provision of heat, especially at low temperatures less than 300 degrees C. This paper looks at the results of two case studies for understanding the economics and potential for renewable thermal energy systems (RTES), particularly in hybrid configurations to provide industrial process heat (IPH). The first case study looks at heat pumps for district heating, and the second, the use of linear Fresnel collectors (LFCs) coupled with phase change material (PCM) thermal energy storage (TES) for direct steam generation (DSG). Using district heat as an input for the heat pump, three cases were run harvesting energy from ambient water (5 degrees C), sewage water (20 degrees C), and a solar collector (35 degrees C). Accounting for elevated costs of infrastructure for each heat source, the levelized cost of heat (LCOH) of the first case study ranged from $4-$10 per million British Thermal Units (MMBTU). For the second case study modeling LFCs with PCM and TES, the results show that a LCOH of $9-$15 per MMBTU is possible, depending on the direct normal irradiance.
concentrated solar thermal↗
Field Validation of Electrochemical Water Filtration System on Open Loop Cooling Towers at Automotive Plants
Open loop cooling towers play a pivotal role in rejecting heat for chilled water systems serving industrial processes, heating, ventilation, and air conditioning loads. Exposure to outside conditions can present certain operating challenges to system performance including scaling, corrosion, and biological growth. These issues are mitigated through the use of effective cooling tower water filtration and treatment systems to reduce contaminants—along with other total suspended solids (TSS) and total dissolved solids (TDS)—in the system. The U.S. Department of Energy’s Industrial Efficiency and Decarbonization Office is interested in an electrochemical-based filtration system with the ability to remove TSS particulate down to 1 micron. The removal of finer particulates reduces the need for blowdown and, in turn, makeup water use and chemical treatment in the cooling tower. Additionally, the removal process can reduce fouling at the condensers, resulting in better heat exchange and energy savings. Two Industrial Technology Validation program projects validated the electrochemical water filtration system at the Toyota Motor Manufacturing, Mississippi plant in Blue Springs, Mississippi, and the Nissan Canton Vehicle Assembly Plant in Canton, Mississippi. Researchers found that installation of both systems resulted in water and chemical treatment savings with minimal impact on energy use.
32 ENERGY CONSERVATION, CONSUMPTION, AND UTILIZATI↗