Underground Hydrogen Storage: Geochemical Considerations
Invited presentation.
Beckingham, Lauren E [Auburn University] (ORCID:00↗
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Risk Assessment for Spatial Differences and Societal Risk for Aboveground Leaks from an Underground Hydrogen Storage System
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Louie, Melissa Sui-hui [Sandia National Laboratori↗
Analysis of synergies in converting underground storage sites: Natural gas to hydrogen with co-located CO2 storage
This study examines the untapped potential of synergistically converting underground natural gas storage (UGS) into underground hydrogen storage (UHS) with co-located CO2 storage. Current approaches to subsurface storage technology (SST) development often prioritise single-use scenarios, overlooking the benefits of integrating multiple technologies. We investigate converting UGS assets into UHS through gradual cushion-gas injection over multiple years, rather than injecting all cushion gas in the first year, and include on-site CO2 storage to offset site emissions. Mechanistic modelling shows this gradual transition reduces the Levelised Cost of Storage (LCOS) of H2 by 1.2-13.1% while retaining energy output within 3% of the current status quo. We also show that combined UHS and CO2 storage hubs can reduce the LCOS of CO2 by 45-77% for only a 3-10% increase in hydrogen LCOS relative to the status quo. This analysis framework may help future-proof SST sites and support a resilient, economically beneficial energy transition.
Mouli-Castillo, Julien↗
Integrated Hydrogen Energy Storage System (IHESS) for Power Generation (Final Report)
GTI Energy partnered with Praxair Inc., a subsidiary of Linde PLC (Praxair), the Center for Electromechanics at the University of Texas at Austin (CEM), Entergy Corporation (Entergy), Quanta Services (Quanta) and Mitsubishi Heavy Industries (MHI) to perform a feasibility study that determines the economic and technical feasibility of low-carbon hydrogen energy storage integrated with a site-specific fossil fuel asset to decarbonize electricity production using the Integrated Hydrogen Energy Storage System (IHESS). The proposed IHESS concept is novel, as it sought to leverage the existing natural gas infrastructure, hydrogen production and pipelines, existing underground hydrogen storage system and power plants in the Gulf Coast region to reduce carbon emissions and generate lowcarbon electricity. This study has shown that IHESS has a promising commercial outlook as the concept leverages existing natural gas infrastructure assets and hydrogen production and storage that are unique to the Texas gulf coast region. A key hurdle with hydrogen supply and transportation has been capital investment. By storing hydrogen in underground storage and delivering it as a fuel source during peak demand using the existing infrastructure minimizes the capital investment. Regional petrochemical producers who are actively seeking opportunities to reduce costs and lower emissions should find the IHESS concept very appealing.
03 NATURAL GAS↗
Roles of kaolinite-oil-gas molecular interactions in hydrogen storage within depleted reservoirs
Hydrogen is a clean alternative to fossil fuels, emitting only water vapor during combustion. In a future hydrogen economy, large-scale storage will be an important component of the supply chain. Due to its low volumetric density, conventional surface storage methods are inadequate. Underground hydrogen storage (UHS) offers a viable solution, enabling the storage of millions of cubic meters. Among potential geological sites, including salt caverns, aquifers, and depleted gas reservoirs, depleted oil reservoirs show promise. Studying hydrogen interactions with residual oil and reservoir minerals is vital for understanding the properties of hydrogen and the reservoir post-injection. In this work, we employed molecular dynamics simulations to gain molecular-level insights into these interactions. We investigated hydrogen dissolution in oil, adsorption at kaolinite/oil interfaces, the role of CO 2 as a cushion gas, and the influence of kaolinite’s hydrophobicity on H 2 behavior. The main findings include: (1) hydrogen dissolves more in oil than in water, (2) the introduction of CO 2 suppresses hydrogen dissolution in oil and reduces the interfacial tension (IFT) between oil and gas, (3) CO 2 decreases H 2 partitioning near kaolinite surfaces due to its strong affinity for the hydrophilic gibbsite surface of kaolinite, and (4) CO 2 is more effective than H 2 in reducing IFT between kaolinite and the oil–gas mixture. These findings emphasize the effectiveness of CO 2 as a cushion gas and the important role of clay hydrophobicity in UHS, providing insights that are challenging to obtain experimentally.
08 HYDROGEN↗
Optical Fiber Sensors Capable of Monitoring Hydrogen in the Subsurface Hydrogen Storage Environment
Subsurface hydrogen storage is a cost-effective and environmentally friendly storage option in a large quantity. Hydrogen would be stored in subsurface storage reservoirs at high temperature/pressure under very humid condition. Monitoring hydrogen concentration in those harsh storage environments is crucial to ensure the integrity and safety of the hydrogen storage infrastructure. Thus, this project focuses on the development of optical fiber hydrogen sensors capable of monitoring hydrogen in the harsh environments that are representative of underground storage conditions. The optical fiber hydrogen sensor developed at NETL consists of a palladium-based sensing film with a filter layer which minimizes the environmental impacts on hydrogen sensing. The developed sensor has demonstrated significant improvement on hydrogen sensing at 80℃ under high humidity condition (99% RH) without the baseline drift. The hydrogen sensor also showed negligible cross-sensitivity to CO2 and CH4 which would be present as a cushion gas inside the underground hydrogen storage reservoir. Moreover, the sensor has demonstrated the stable monitoring of hydrogen concentration at high pressure (1000 psi) and 80 ℃ in the presence of biological samples. The optical fiber hydrogen sensor developed would enable reliable monitoring of hydrogen concentration in subsurface hydrogen storage facilities.
Kim, Daejin↗
H2 Sensing with an Optical Fiber Sensor in the Subsurface H2 Storage Conditions
The concentration of hydrogen is subject to change due to biological reactions in the underground hydrogen storage reservoirs. Thus, monitoring hydrogen concentration in the subsurface gas deposits is vital to ensure the integrity and safety of the storage facilities. In this study, the optical fiber hydrogen sensor was developed and validated in relevant subsurface storage environments. Specifically, the sensor has demonstrated successful sensing performance at high temperatures (~80 °C) and high pressures (~1,000 psi) under very humid conditions (~100% RH). In addition, the sensor was exposed to real subsurface microbial samples to monitor microbially induced changes in hydrogen concentration. The sensor has shown stable H2 sensing responses in the replicated underground hydrogen storage conditions without deterioration or loss of H2 sensitivity. The biotic subsurface sample with hydrogen gas resulted in higher transmission intensity change than the abiotic sample due to the possible hydrogen consumption with microbes.
Kim, Daejin↗
Low-stress creep behavior of multiple salt caverns under cyclic operations
Here, the use of multiple salt caverns for large-scale underground hydrogen storage offers a strategic solution to the growing demand for efficient and flexible energy storage, due to the inherent low permeability, high mechanical strength, and self-healing properties of the salt formation. Despite these advantages, the long-term geomechanical response of salt caverns under cyclic injection and withdrawal remains a significant challenge for ensuring operational stability. This mechanistic study highlights the critical role of low-stress creep, also known as pressure solution creep, in governing deformation of salt caverns during cyclic operations. Unlike conventional creep mechanisms that dominate under high-stress conditions, low-stress creep becomes particularly relevant under the moderate stress changes induced by repeated injection and withdrawal, which provides a previously underexplored control on cavern closure. Our three-dimensional computational model integrates the low-stress creep mechanism into the Munson–Dawson creep equation across a spectrum of operational scenarios including variations in cavern pressure cycles, injection-withdrawal frequencies, and caprock mechanical property. The low-stress creep components accelerate the cavern creep closure, which is amplified with shorter cycle frequency and larger pressure difference. Sensitivity analyses capture the complex interactions between multiple caverns and surround formations at the field scale that allows for a quantitative assessment of deformation patterns and closure rates over time and thereby informs the design and operation of sustainable underground hydrogen storage system.
Cyclic operation↗
DISSPATCH H2: Assessing Subsurface Storage Potential for Hydrogen
This project evaluates the technical feasibility of long-term underground hydrogen storage in the Anadarko Basin, integrating subsurface science, reservoir engineering, and system-level analysis to build a cohesive understanding of how hydrogen may be stored and recovered in porous media. Although salt caverns currently dominate commercial-scale hydrogen storage, their limited geographic availability necessitates alternative options that can support a more resilient energy system. Depleted oil and gas reservoirs offer a widely distributed and potentially high-capacity solution, but their suitability depends on formation-specific geologic, petrophysical, microbial, and operational factors. This study provides the first coordinated assessment of these factors within the Simpson Group of Oklahoma.
03 NATURAL GAS↗
Evaluation of hydrogen storage in sandstone reservoirs using 1 H nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy
Evaluation of the hydrogen storage capacity of porous rocks is crucial for underground hydrogen storage. Using 1 H nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy, we successfully characterized the hydrogen responses and identified storage mechanisms in Berea sandstone under varying water saturation. Here, the results indicate that the injected hydrogen behaves as a free gas phase and is capable of occupying the empty pore volume regardless of the saturation state. No hysteresis was observed during injection and production cycles.
37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗
Local-Scale Framework for Techno-Economic Analysis of Subsurface Hydrogen Storage
The energy sector is evolving toward increased reliance on renewable energy technologies to meet state, national, and organization decarbonization goals. This trend is creating challenges and opportunities with meeting current and future energy demand under the variable supply conditions that most renewables provide. Hydrogen (H 2 ) is a promising energy carrier that may meet the need for both on-demand and long-duration storage to maintain energy security and resilience. Underground hydrogen storage (UHS) is a method of storing H 2 in subsurface geological systems, such as depleted hydrocarbon reservoirs, salt caverns, saline aquifers, hard rock, and other engineered systems. UHS has the potential to store large quantities of H 2 over time, providing a reliable source of energy while minimizing surface footprints at a lower investment cost compared to surface storage. Earlier work estimated that, if converted and retrofitted, existing underground natural gas storage (UGS) facilities in the U.S. can store approximately 327 TWh, or 9.8 million metric tons, of pure H 2 . However, a shift to pure H 2 would decrease the collective working-gas energy of the UGS facilities by approximately 75% due to physical and chemical differences between natural gas and hydrogen. The same work also suggests that almost 75% of the existing UGS facilities in the U.S. could maintain current energy demand buffering using a blend of only 20% H 2 to 80% natural gas, by volume at surface conditions. If we can take advantage of the suite of mature technologies of existing UGS facilities and natural gas utility systems to accelerate the transition to a hydrogen economy in the U.S., a 20% H 2 blend could lead to a 6-7% reduction of greenhouse gas emissions for energy delivered through natural gas utility systems.
03 NATURAL GAS↗
A Review of Coupled Geochemical–Geomechanical Impacts in Subsurface CO 2 , H 2 , and Air Storage Systems
Increased demand for decarbonization and renewable energy has led to increasing interest in engineered subsurface storage systems for large-scale carbon reduction and energy storage. In these applications, a working fluid (CO 2 , H 2 , air, etc.) is injected into a deep formation for permanent sequestration or seasonal energy storage. The heterogeneous nature of the porous formation and the fluid–rock interactions introduce complexity and uncertainty in the fate of the injected component and host formations in these applications. Interactions between the working gas, native brine, and formation mineralogy must be adequately assessed to evaluate the efficiency, risk, and viability of a particular storage site and operational regime. This study reviews the current state of knowledge about coupled geochemical–geomechanical impacts in geologic carbon sequestration (GCS), underground hydrogen storage (UHS), and compressed air energy storage (CAES) systems involving the injection of CO 2 , H 2 , and air. Specific review topics include (1) existing injection induced geochemical reactions in these systems; (2) the impact of these reactions on the porosity and permeability of host formation; (3) the impact of these reactions on the mechanical properties of host formation; and (4) the investigation of geochemical-geomechanical process in pilot scale GCS. This study helps to facilitate an understanding of the potential geochemical–geomechanical risks involved in different subsurface energy storage systems and highlights future research needs.
08 HYDROGEN↗
Optical Fiber Sensor with a Hydrophobic Filter Layer for Monitoring Hydrogen under Humid Conditions
Real-time and remote monitoring of hydrogen concentration in underground hydrogen storage reservoirs is crucial to maintaining the integrity and safety of the storage facilities. High humidity in the underground deposits interferes with hydrogen sensors, introducing inaccuracy into the hydrogen sensing measurements. A hydrophobic filter layer over a hydrogen sensing layer on an optical fiber hydrogen sensor was devised to minimize the impact of the humidity on the sensor. The hydrogen sensor coated with a hydrophobic filter layer demonstrated a significant improvement in reliable hydrogen sensing under high humidity conditions (99% RH) without severe baseline drift and reduction of transmission intensity. Finally, the optical fiber hydrogen sensor revamped with the filter layer would enable the reliable measurement of hydrogen concentration under the humid conditions expected in subsurface hydrogen storage facilities.
08 HYDROGEN↗
Developing & Investigating Subsurface Storage Potential and Assessing Technical Challenges for Hydrogen (DISSPATCH H2)
AGU24 Annual Meeting Presentation
03 NATURAL GAS↗
Hydrogen, Methane, Brine Flow Behavior, and Saturation in Sandstone Cores During H 2 and CH 4 Injection and Displacement
Large-scale underground hydrogen storage (UHS) is a critical component in the emerging hydrogen economy. Knowledge of multiphase flow behavior involving hydrogen in storage reservoir formations is crucial to characterizing hydrogen transport properties and essential for the deliverability and storage operations of UHS. There are still many gaps in fully understanding hydrogen–methane–brine multiphase phase flow that require further investigation. In this work, H 2 and CH 4 were injected through brine-saturated sandstone cores using a tri-axial core holder system fitted with flow rate meters and pressure transducers, while the effluent gas concentrations were analyzed using an online micro gas chromatograph. Brine displacement, permeability, and gas breakthrough curves were measured. We studied the flow behavior of hydrogen and methane in sandstone cores through testing brine displacement by gas injection and comparing the hydrogen displacement of methane with the methane displacement of hydrogen. We also tested the differences between horizontal and vertical flow in brine displacement. The results showed that brine displacement was more efficient in a core with higher permeability and porosity, resulting in a higher initial gas saturation. A higher gas injection rate brought about faster gas breakthrough measured by pore volume and sharper concentration curves. Hydrogen did not exhibit abnormal flow in the sandstone when the flow was horizontal and downward vertical. Gas overriding was observed in brine displacements when the flow was horizontal, with hydrogen showing this behavior more profoundly compared to methane. Downward vertical gas injection induced higher efficiency brine displacement compared to horizontal displacement and resulted in a higher initial gas saturation in the sandstone cores. These findings address critical knowledge gaps regarding gas flow patterns and displacement behaviors during hydrogen injection and recovery phases in UHS facilities using methane as the cushion gas. The insights from this research offer valuable guidance for optimizing UHS systems, ensuring operational efficiency, and advancing sustainable energy solutions in alignment with decarbonization goals.
08 HYDROGEN↗
Hydrogen Energy Storage Integrated with a Combined Cycle Plant
A project is being developed that will build upon the existing infrastructure and resources at the Intermountain Power Project (IPP) site to provide reliable, dispatchable energy and to support the transmission of renewable energy resources while transitioning to an economical green energy future. The concept study depicted in this report outlines a techno-economic optimization to fulfill the demand for 30% vol hydrogen co-firing in the IPP 840 MW advanced class combined cycle power plant. In an initial step, a site assessment concluded the site has sufficient land available to co-locate a hydrogen production and storage facility. The team evaluated and defined a scalable concept that considered technology characteristics, including input and output models to be used for optimization purposes. The concept for the hydrogen production and storage system integrates multiple technologies, to determine system size and scalable approach, for each of the technologies evaluated, the team defined component and subcomponent sizes, minimum and maximum capacity, modularity, component utility consumption (electric, water), component flexibility and servicing, layout, and technology status, as well as technology alternatives. For hydrogen generation, the project considers Siemens Energy’s Silyzer-300 (S300) technology, a 17.5 MW modular Proton Exchange Membrane (PEM) electrolyzer. For the S300 configuration, the team determined that three S300 arrays, or approximately 1,000 kg/hr, per block would yield a compact block design. This configuration results in a fairly wide and flexible arrangement that fits well into the spaces available at the site. Therefore, the overall design approach is based on multiple identical blocks of 3 arrays to minimize engineering cost and optimize constructability. In parallel, a transmission screening study was conducted to determine any potential transmission constraints from the energy sources that could feed the hydrogen production equipment. The study results show that minimum transmission constraints would be encountered to deliver 400 MW renewable generation from southern California, or south-central Wyoming. At last, the techno-economic analysis concluded that a scenario that uses solar and wind power yields the lowest levelized cost of hydrogen (LCOH 2 ) production and the lowest cost per tonne of CO 2 reduced. In this optimized scenario, the hydrogen production plant was determined as 6,201 kg/hr and the hydrogen storage (underground cavern) was determined as 4,600 tonnes. The resulting capacity factor for the hydrogen production plant was 66.33% with 8,745 operating hours in one year. This techno-economic analysis provided various options for integrating hydrogen storage at the Intermountain Power Plant site to co-fire the CCPP units. The results provide insightful data about the magnitude of capacity needed and the economics of producing hydrogen and reducing CO 2 emissions.
08 HYDROGEN↗