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All sourcesNASA NTRSDOE OSTI
DOE OSTI2024

Supporting data for Site-specific Design Case Study for Wet Waste Hydrothermal Liquefaction and Biocrude Upgrading to Hydrocarbon Fuels

Hydrothermal liquefaction (HTL) is a thermal process that converts wet biomass to renewable hydrocarbon fuel blendstocks (i.e., renewable naphtha, renewable diesel, and sustainable aviation fuel (SAF)). It can utilize a wide range of pure and blended wet feedstocks, including sewage sludge from water resource recovery facilities (WRRF), food and agriculture wastes, algae, fats, oils and greases (FOG) and blends of dry and wet wastes/feedstocks. Historically, techno-economic analysis (TEA) and annual state of technology (SOT) assessments with standard economic assumptions used by the Bioenergy Technologies Office (BETO) were conducted for the wet waste HTL pathway leveraging experimental data collected from Pacific Northwest National Laboratory’s (PNNL) continuous flow reactor systems. The objective of the SOT assessment has been to guide and track progress of BETO’s HTL research and development (R&D) toward reduced cost and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions for the pathway. However, gaps exist between BETO’s traditional SOT updates and the needs of key external stakeholders that – if addressed – will accelerate technology adoption. This Business Case Study aims to bridge this gap by providing an updated design, TEA, and LCA based on PNNL’s FY23 R&D with added analyses and information that provide enhanced relevance for stakeholders of the HTL technology. This includes specific siting, regional wet waste resource inventory and transportation cost analyses, fuel market information, sustainable fuel policy impacts, economic metrics of net present value (NPV) and internal rate of return (IRR), greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions analysis, and statistical analysis of cost and technical uncertainties of the HTL plant design. The study focuses on the “Detroit combined statistical area (CSA)” region for siting of a wet waste HTL plant adjacent to the Great Lakes Water Authority (GLWA) facility with guidance from industry participants. Regional resource and siting analyses were conducted to identify feedstock availability, scale, and cost, as well as a beneficial site location. TEA with detailed rigorous capital cost estimation for the specific site application was conducted to evaluate the key economic metrics of most value to industrial partners. These include total capital investment, operating costs, minimum fuel selling price (MFSP) of the biocrude and fuel blendstock, and NPV and internal rate of return IRR with sustainable fuel credits. Life cycle analysis was conducted to evaluate the supply chain greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions for the wet waste HTL process as compared with petroleum derived diesel. This study is also informed by years of R&D and process de-risking learnings and was conducted with a basic engineering HTL plant design and costing that akin to a “first-of-a-kind” plant economics. This differs from our conventional “nth plant ” SOT assessments. Specifically, the HTL process model has been updated with more operationally reliable methods for feed heating and phase separations. Further, we have implemented additional spare equipment for redundancy, a more rigorous installed equipment cost estimation approach, and additional costs associated with feed formatting and delivery, building, piping and site development. An Excel-based cost sheet based on the basic engineering design is also released alongside the report that allows users to conduct customized TEA with their own feed composition and financial assumptions.

Li, Shuyun↗
DOE OSTI2020

Strongly Surface State Carrier‐Dependent Spin–Orbit Torque in Magnetic Topological Insulators

Abstract The topological surface states (TSS) in topological insulators (TIs) can exert strong spin–orbit torque (SOT) on adjacent magnetization, offering great potential in implementing energy‐efficient magnetic memory devices. However, there are large discrepancies among the reported spin Hall angle values in TIs, and its temperature dependence still remains elusive. Here, the spin Hall angle in a modulation‐doped Cr‐Bi x Sb 2− x Te 3 (Cr‐BST) film is quantitatively determined via both transport and optic approaches, where consistent results are obtained. A large spin Hall angle of ≈90 in the modulation‐doped Cr‐BST film is demonstrated at 2.5 K, and the spin Hall angle drastically decreases to 0.3–0.5 as the temperature increases. Moreover, by tuning the top TSS carrier concentration, a competition between the top and bottom TSS in contributing to SOT is observed. The above phenomena can account for the large discrepancies among the previously reported spin Hall angle values and reveal the unique role of TSS in generating SOT.

Che, Xiaoyu↗
DOE OSTI2026

Imaging of a van der Waals spin-orbit torque system using spin ensembles in hBN

Recently, optically active spin defects embedded in two-dimensional (2D) van der Waals (vdW) crystals have emerged as a transformative quantum sensing platform to explore cutting-edge materials science. Taking advantage of excellent solid-state integrability, this new class of spin defects can be readily arranged in nanoscale proximity to target materials, showing great promise for realizing in-situ quantum sensing of microscopic spin and charge behaviors in vdW heterostructures. Here we report hexagonal boron nitride-based quantum imaging of field-free deterministic magnetic switching and electric current distributions in an all-vdW spin-orbit torque (SOT) system. By visualizing variations of nanoscale magnetic stray field profile of room-temperature 2D magnet Fe 3 GaTe 2 under different SOT conditions, we show how the magnetic switching evolves from deterministic to stochastic behavior due to the interplay between spin orientations, anisotropy and Joule heating. Micromagnetic simulations rationalize our results well, revealing the role of field-like SOT in inhibiting thermal fluctuation driven stochastic switching and chaotic multi-domain competition. This understanding, which is otherwise difficult to access by conventional transport measurements, offers valuable insights into material design, testing, and performance evaluation of next-generation vdW spintronic devices.

Imaging techniques↗
DOE OSTI2020

Study of the perpendicular magnetic anisotropy, spin–orbit torque, and Dzyaloshinskii–Moriya interaction in the heavy metal/CoFeB bilayers with Ir 22 Mn 78 insertion

The perpendicular magnetic anisotropy (PMA), current-induced spin–orbit torques (SOTs), and Dzyaloshinskii–Moriya interaction (DMI) in the as-grown W or Ta/Ir 22 Mn 78 (IrMn)/CoFeB/MgO stacks with varying IrMn layer thicknesses were investigated. The in-plane magnetized W/CoFeB/MgO sample becomes perpendicularly magnetized after inserting the IrMn layer without the requirement of the annealing process. The effective magnetization fields 4π Meff show a nonmonotonic dependence on the IrMn layer thickness, which reaches the maximum in magnitude at a thickness of tIrMn = 0.75 nm. The SOT effective fields corresponding to damping-like and field-like torques decrease with the insertion layer thickness. Moreover, the variation of the IrMn layer thickness leads to the change of the DMI in magnitude and sign change from positive (favoring right-handed chirality) to negative (favoring left-handed chirality). The realization of changing the PMA, SOTs, and DMI by inserting the IrMn layer provides more flexibility in the design of spintronic devices.

Physics↗
DOE OSTI2020

Spin orbit torque switching of synthetic Co/Ir/Co trilayers with perpendicular anisotropy and tunable interlayer coupling

Spin orbit torque (SOT) has attracted much attention as an energy efficient electrical method to switch the magnetization in single magnetic layer with both in-plane and perpendicular anisotropy. Here, we report SOT switching of synthetic antiferromagnetic and ferrimagnetic Co/Ir/Co trilayers, where the net magnetization and the interlayer coupling strength are highly controllable. Here, a weak external field dependence of the SOT switching was observed due to the robust domain wall structure in the trilayer. The switching current density was observed to scale inversely with the net magnetization. For trilayers with the same net magnetization, switching current is independent of the layer order because switching in the thicker Co layer dominates. In both ferromagnetic and antiferromagetic regimes, the switching current reflects the interlayer coupling strength.

32 ENERGY CONSERVATION, CONSUMPTION, AND UTILIZATI↗
DOE OSTI2024

Unconventional spin-orbit torques from sputtered MoTe 2 films

Materials with strong spin-orbit coupling and low crystalline symmetry are promising for generating large unconventional spin-orbit torques (SOTs), such as in-plane fieldlike (FL) torques and out-of-plane dampinglike (DL) torques, which can effectively manipulate and deterministically switch an out-of-plane magnetization without the need for additional external in-plane magnetic fields. Here, we report SOTs generated by magnetron-sputtered 1⁢T' MoTe 2 /Permalloy (Py; Ni 80 ⁢Fe 20 )/MgO heterostructures using both spin-torque ferromagnetic resonance (ST-FMR) and second harmonic Hall measurements. We observed unconventional FL and DL torques in our samples due to spins polarized normal to the interface of MoTe 2 and Py layers, and studied the influence of crystallographic order and MoTe 2 layer thickness on the SOTs. By comparing the Raman spectra of 1⁢T' MoTe 2 samples prepared in different ways, we found a tensile strain in sputtered MoTe 2 films, which might further enhance the generation of unconventional torques by reducing the symmetry of 1⁢T' MoTe 2 .

75 CONDENSED MATTER PHYSICS, SUPERCONDUCTIVITY AND↗
DOE OSTI2023

Picosecond spin-orbit torque–induced coherent magnetization switching in a ferromagnet

Electrically controllable nonvolatile magnetic memories show great potential for the replacement of conventional semiconductor-based memory technologies. Here, we experimentally demonstrate ultrafast spin-orbit torque (SOT)-induced coherent magnetization switching dynamics in a ferromagnet. We use an ultrafast photoconducting switch and a coplanar strip line to generate and guide a ~9-picosecond electrical pulse into a heavy metal/ferromagnet multilayer to induce ultrafast SOT. We then use magneto-optical probing to investigate the magnetization dynamics with sub-picosecond resolution. Ultrafast heating by the approximately 9 picosecond current pulse induces a thermal anisotropy torque which, in combination with the damping-like torque, coherently rotates the magnetization to obtain zero-crossing of magnetization in ~70 picoseconds. A macro-magnetic simulation coupled with an ultrafast heating model agrees well with the experiment and suggests coherent magnetization switching without any incubation delay on an unprecedented time scale. Our work proposes a unique magnetization switching mechanism toward markedly increasing the writing speed of SOT magnetic random-access memory devices.

75 CONDENSED MATTER PHYSICS, SUPERCONDUCTIVITY AND↗
DOE OSTI2025

Field-free switching of perpendicular magnetization in a ferrimagnetic insulator with spin reorientation transition

Writing magnetic bits through spin-orbit torque (SOT) switching is promising for fast and efficient magnetic random-access memory devices. While SOT switching of out-of-plane (OOP) magnetized states requires lateral symmetry breaking, in-plane (IP) magnetized states suffer from low storage density. Here, we demonstrate a field-free switching scheme using a 5-nanometer europium iron garnet film grown with a (110) orientation that shows a spin reorientation transition from OOP to IP above room temperature. This scheme combines the benefits of high-density storage in the OOP states at room temperature and the efficient field-free SOT switching in the IP states at elevated temperatures. While conventional switching of OOP bits faces the dilemma that high OOP anisotropy is required to improve bit stability and low OOP anisotropy is required to lower switching current density, this scheme disentangles this interdependence, allowing for low switching currents to be possible without sacrificing the bit stability, offering opportunities for future memory devices.

Science & Technology - Other Topics↗
DOE OSTI2020

Wet Waste Hydrothermal Liquefaction and Biocrude Upgrading to Hydrocarbon Fuels (2019 State of Technology)

Each year, the DOE Bioenergy Technologies Office (BETO) assesses progress in their research and development efforts toward sustainable production of renewable fuels. Technical and cost targets were previously established for the wet waste hydrothermal liquefaction and biocrude upgrading pathway and summarized in a design report. The present report summarizes the research and associated techno-economic analysis (TEA) in support of the 2019 state of technology (SOT) assessment for this pathway. Data from Pacific Northwest National Laboratory’s Conversion hydrothermal liquefaction (HTL) program for wet waste was used to update the pathway techno-economic analysis (TEA) for the fiscal year 2019 State of Technology (2019 SOT). An overview of the current process model, experimental data and plant economics for the SOT is presented.

09 BIOMASS FUELS↗
DOE OSTI2022

Hydrothermal Liquefaction and Upgrading of Wastewater-Grown Microalgae: 2021 State of Technology

The fiscal year (FY) 2021 State of Technology (SOT) Assessment for the hydrothermal liquefaction (HTL) of wastewater (WW)-grown microalgae and biocrude upgrading system was completed and reported here. An industrial partner, Gross-Wen Technologies (GWT), provided algae feedstock cultivated on a revolving algal biofilm (RAB) system by using the primary effluent from a water resource recovery facility (WRRF). This provided algae was tested at PNNL for HTL processing. The experimental results provided the major design basis of the HTL process of the SOT baseline case. The primary effluent of the Metropolitan Water Reclamation District (MWRD) of Greater Chicago was assumed to be the nutrients source for algae growth and the algae yield data per gallon wastewater provided by GWT were used to estimate the total algae production rate and thus the HTL conversion plant scale. Considering different cultivation technologies and wastewater streams with different flow rates and nutrients contents can be used to produce algae, this SOT assessment just provided an example case study for WW-grown algae based HTL conversion to fuels systems. A preliminary economic analysis was developed based on process simulation results. Sensitivity analysis was implemented to evaluate cost impacts of plant scales, potential cost improvements and other key factors.

54 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES↗
DOE OSTI2022

Algal Biomass Production via Open Pond Algae Farm Cultivation: 2021 State of Technology and Future Research

The annual State of Technology (SOT) assessment is an essential activity for platform research conducted under the Bioenergy Technologies Office. It allows for the impact of research progress to be quantified in terms of economic improvements in the overall biofuel production process for a particular biomass processing pathway, whether based on terrestrial or algal biomass feedstocks. As such, initial benchmarks can be established for currently demonstrated performance, and progress can be tracked towards out-year goals to ultimately demonstrate economically viable biofuel technologies. NREL's algae state of technology benchmarking efforts focus both on front-end algal biomass production and separately on back-end conversion to fuels through NREL's "combined algae processing" (CAP) pathway. The production model is based on outdoor long-term cultivation data, enabled by comprehensive algal biomass production trials conducted under Development of Integrated Screening, Cultivar Optimization, and Verification Research (DISCOVR) consortium efforts, driven by data furnished by Arizona State University (ASU) at the Arizona Center for Algae Technology and Innovation (AzCATI) testbed site. The CAP model is based on experimental efforts conducted under NREL research and development projects. This report focuses on front-end algal biomass production, documenting the pertinent algal biomass cultivation parameters that were input to the NREL open pond algae farm model based on the latest DISCOVR cultivation performance data. Relative to the fiscal year (FY) 2020 SOT at $683/ton or $603/ton for ASU and FA evaporation scenarios, respectively (unlined pond basis), the FY 2021 SOT represents a slight increase in MBSP of 1%-2%. This is primarily attributed to a slight 4% reduction in annual cultivation productivity achieved at the AzCATI site (supported by the efforts under the DISCOVR consortium noted above) observed during FY 2021 cultivation campaigns.

09 BIOMASS FUELS↗
DOE OSTI2022

Biochemical Conversion of Lignocellulosic Biomass to Hydrocarbon Fuels and Products (2021 State of Technology and Future Research)

The annual State of Technology (SOT) assessment is an essential activity for biochemical platform research. It allows the impact of research progress to be quantified in terms of economic improvements in the overall cellulosic biofuel production process for a particular conversion pathway. As such, initial benchmarks can be established for currently demonstrated performance and progress can be tracked towards out-year goals to ultimately demonstrate cost-competitive cellulosic biofuel technology. The purpose of this report is to benchmark the latest experimental developments across a number of potential bioconversion pathways as quantified by modeled minimum fuel selling prices (MFSPs), as a measure of current status relative to those final targets. For this state of technology, TEA models were run for two separate biological conversion pathways to fuels, based on available data for integrated biomass deconstruction and hydrolysate processing; namely carboxylic acids (primarily butyric acid) and diols (2,3-butanediol [BDO]), reflecting NREL's recently-published 2018 biochemical design report focused on those two pathways. The models were run across three scenarios for lignin utilization, namely combustion, conversion to coproducts based on "base case" performance with biomass hydrolysate, and conversion to coproducts based on "high" performance demonstrated with model lignin monomer components. A key improvement reflected in the 2021 SOT is centered around making use of the latest lignin conversion data, which over the past year focused primarily on production of ß-ketoadipate (BKA) as a more optimal molecule compared to the closely-related adipic acid coproduct of prior recent focus, both in terms of superior product properties and biology, as well as reduced processing complexity (reducing two steps for sequential production of muconate followed by hydrogenation to adipic acid down to a single step for direct production of BKA). This update translated to a roughly 17% increase in mass yield of final coproduct output at a nearly four-fold increase in fermentation productivity on lignin monomers relative to prior 2020 SOT benchmarks for muconic/adipic acid production.

09 BIOMASS FUELS↗
DOE OSTI2022

Spin orbit torque in ferromagnet/topological-quantum-material heterostructures

The main objective of this proposal was to investigate the spin-orbital driven phenomena in topological insulator (TI)/ferromagnet (FM) or transition metal (TM) heterostructures. In particularly, we tried to utilize the spin-momentum locking properties on the surface of TIs to achieve ideal spin-orbit torques (SOTs). In practice, we found that the surface properties have been greatly modified, resulting in much more complicated magneto-transport behaviors than what is expected in SOT-driven magnetotransport. Through systematic and extended investigations, we start to unravel that the nonlinear magnetotransport properties, which was, in the past, mainly attributed to SOT-driven phenomena, can be used to infer the modification of the electronic band structures of TIs and spin textures in FMs which are closely related with charge-spin interconversion phenomena. Regarding the band structures In TIs, we find under electrostatic perturbations imposed by deposition of nonmagnetic TMs, the quantum well states formed on the surface of TIs develop substantial Rashba spin-splitting, which is detected as a bilinear magnetoresistance (BMR). Under magnetic perturbations, the nonlinear planar Hall effect (NPHE) in the topological surface states is greatly enhanced, possibly reflecting the modified surface band structure due to time-reversal symmetry breaking. In a double HM/FM heterostructure where the magnetic anisotropy can be robustly tuned, we observed second-harmonic Hall voltage responses corresponding to domain wall structures with fixed chirality, stabilized by interfacial Dzyaloshinskii–Moriya interaction (DMI). In addition, in the linear transport regime, we utilized inverse-SHE-induced anomalous Hall effect in Pt to probe the exchange bias on the surface of a doped magnetic insulator Tm 3 Fe 5 O 12 .

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2021

Woody Feedstocks 2021 State of Technology Report

The U.S. Department of Energy promotes production of advanced liquid transportation fuels from lignocellulosic biomass by funding fundamental and applied research that advances the state of technology (SOT). As part of its involvement with this overall mission, Idaho National Laboratory completes annual SOT reports for n th -plant biomass feedstock logistics. The purpose of the SOTs is to provide the status of feedstock supply system technology development for biomass to biofuels, based on actual data and experimental results relative to technical targets and cost goals from specific design cases.

09 BIOMASS FUELS↗
DOE OSTI2021

Herbaceous Feedstock 2021 State of Technology Report

The U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) promotes the production of advanced liquid transportation fuels from lignocellulosic biomass by funding fundamental and applied research that advances the State of Technology (SOT). As part of its involvement with this mission, Idaho National Laboratory (INL) completes an annual SOT report for biomass feedstock logistics. This report summarizes supply system impacts of Bioenergy Technologies Office (BETO)-funded research and development efforts at INL and INL collaboration with external partners (e.g. Forest Concepts, Purdue University ) that lead to improvements in feedstock supply systems. These include improvements to and observed performance of innovative harvest and collection methods, storage technologies, transportation and handling approaches, and advanced preprocessing technologies. Biomass quality and variability, and the interface between feedstock quality and conversion performance are key drivers in addition to delivered feedstock cost. In this report, we estimate the benefits of R&D technology improvements to individual supply system unit operations and present the status of feedstock logistics technology development for converting herbaceous biomass into biofuels. These analyses are supported by experimental data where possible and help to align the SOT relative to the cost goals defined in the Multi-Year Plan.

09 BIOMASS FUELS↗
DOE OSTI2023

Supply Chain Sustainability Analysis of Renewable Hydrocarbon Fuels via Hydrothermal Liquefaction, Combined Algal Processing, and Biochemical Conversion: Update of the 2022 State-of-Technology Cases

The Department of Energy's (DOE) Bioenergy Technologies Office (BETO) aims to develop and deploy technologies to transform renewable biomass resources into commercially viable, high-performance biofuels, bioproducts, and biopower through public and private partnerships. BETO and its national laboratory teams conduct in-depth techno-economic assessments (TEA) of biomass feedstock supply and logistics and conversion technologies to produce biofuels. There are two general types of TEAs: A design case outlines a target case (future projection) for a particular biofuel pathway. It informs R&D priorities by identifying areas in need of improvement, tracks sustainability impact of R&D, and provides goals and benchmarks against which technology progress is assessed. A state of technology (SOT) analysis assesses progress within and across relevant technology areas based on actual results at current experimental scales relative to technical targets and cost goals from design cases, and includes technical, economic, and environmental criteria as available. In addition to developing a TEA for a pathway of interest, BETO also performs a supply chain sustainability analysis (SCSA). The SCSA takes the life-cycle analysis approach that BETO has been supporting for over 20 years. It enables BETO to identify energy consumption, environmental, and sustainability issues that may be associated with biofuel production. Approaches to mitigating these issues can then be developed. Additionally, the SCSA allows for comparison of energy and environmental impacts across biofuel pathways in BETO's research and development portfolio. This technical report describes the SCSAs for the production of renewable hydrocarbon transportation fuels via a range of conversion technologies in the 2022 SOTs: (1) renewable hydrocarbon fuels via hydrothermal liquefaction (HTL) of wet sludge from a wastewater treatment plant; (2) renewable hydrocarbon fuels via biochemical conversion of herbaceous lignocellulosic biomass; (3) renewable hydrocarbon fuels via HTL of an algae/woody biomass blend; and (4) renewable hydrocarbon fuels via combined algae processing (CAP).

09 BIOMASS FUELS↗
DOE OSTI2023

Algal Biomass Production via Open Pond Algae Farm Cultivation: 2022 State of Technology and Future Research

The annual State of Technology (SOT) assessment is an essential activity for platform research conducted under the Bioenergy Technologies Office (BETO). It allows for the impact of research progress (both directly achieved in-house at the National Renewable Energy Laboratory [NREL] and furnished by partner organizations) to be quantified in terms of economic improvements in the overall biofuel production process for a particular biomass processing pathway, whether based on terrestrial or algal biomass feedstocks. As such, initial benchmarks can be established for currently demonstrated performance, and progress can be tracked toward out-year goals to ultimately demonstrate economically viable biofuel technologies. NREL's algae SOT benchmarking efforts focus both on front-end algal biomass production and separately on back-end conversion to fuels through NREL's "combined algae processing" (CAP) pathway. The production model is based on outdoor long-term cultivation data, enabled by comprehensive algal biomass production trials conducted under the Development of Integrated Screening, Cultivar Optimization, and Verification Research (DISCOVR) consortium efforts, driven by data furnished by Arizona State University (ASU) at the Arizona Center for Algae Technology and Innovation (AzCATI) testbed site. The CAP model is based on experimental efforts conducted primarily under NREL research and development projects. This report focuses on front-end algal biomass production, documenting the pertinent algal biomass cultivation parameters that were input to the NREL open pond algae farm model. Through partnerships under DISCOVR, collaborators at ASU furnished details on cultivation performance metrics including biomass productivity and harvest densities for recent growth trials done at the AzCATI site. The resulting biomass productivity was calculated at 18.5 g/m2/day (ash-free dry weight [AFDW], annual average) for seasonal cultivation of Picochlorum celeri, Tetraselmis striata LANL1001, and Monoraphidium minutum 26B-AM biomass strains at the ASU site. Picochlorum celeri achieved the best productivity from May to September, with Monoraphidium minutum 26B-AM being used in October, November, March, and April, and Tetraselmis striata employed during winter months (December through February). Beyond the standard SOT models, in Appendix C of this report we also present an industry case study evaluating several scenarios reflective of outdoor cultivation data furnished by an industry collaborator. This case study provides a supplementary datapoint on work being performed elsewhere achieving comparable cultivation productivity with more favorable compositional quality, producing biomass enriched in lipids as may be more optimal for conversion upgrading to fuels and products.

09 BIOMASS FUELS↗
DOE OSTI2020

High-Octane Gasoline from Lignocellulosic Biomass via Syngas and Methanol/Dimethyl Ether Intermediates: 2019 State of Technology

The report focuses on 2019 state of technology (SOT) updates to a 2018 SOT report, which presented research and techno-economic analysis updates of the detailed 2015 design report, along with sensitivity analysis showing the effect of key assumptions and parameters. Relevant developments in 2019 are presented here without repeating the bulk of the material included in the previous reports. The conversion pathway presented in this report includes the gasification of biomass, steam reforming and cleanup of the syngas, followed by the conversion of the syngas to high-octane gasoline (HOG) via methanol and dimethyl-ether (DME) intermediates. Key achievements in 2019 for the DME-to-HOG conversion step include increased DME conversion, while maintaining selectivity towards desirable C5+ hydrocarbon products, reduced aromatics formation, and an increased conversion of co-fed C4 to C5+ (in experiments conducted to simulate the recycle of C4 products).

09 BIOMASS FUELS↗