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Search indexed NASA NTRS and DOE OSTI research on propulsion, heat transfer, battery materials and energy systems. Follow report and document links to the original sources.

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At least 55 records · Page 3
All sourcesNASA NTRSDOE OSTI
DOE OSTI2024

Optimal hybrid power plants for electric vehicle charging demand

Transmission constraints, increasing motivations to decarbonize, and concerns over peak electric vehicle (EV) load impacts on local grids have driven electric customers to consider behind-the-meter, hybrid power plant generation and storage at the distributed-grid level for EV charging. In this study, we develop capabilities to optimize hybrid power plant component capacities for EV charging. We then demonstrate these capabilities in a case study for Boulder, Colorado, using public EV charging data as well as wind and solar resource data. Our results show system designs that balance the cost of energy with load-meeting and peak shaving performance. Within the case study, systems designed for wind, solar photovoltaic (PV), and storage resulted in lower cost of energy than those optimized for PV and storage only. This indicates that in areas where wind resource exists, hybrid power plants that include wind, PV, and battery assets can better meet EV charging loads (including peak loads that are prone to overloading local grids) than PV and battery assets alone. Future work to address limitations in this paper include extending cost modeling to include performance losses (e.g., based on operations or weather) and charging station costs to estimate levelized cost of charging, and quantifying uncertainty and error in our aggregation methods for estimating EV charging loads at the hourly timescale.

14 SOLAR ENERGY↗
DOE OSTI2020

A Robust Segmented Mixed Effect Regression Model for Baseline Electricity Consumption Forecasting

Renewable energy production has been surging around the world in recent years. To mitigate the increasing uncertainty and intermittency of the renewable generation, proactive demand response algorithms and programs are proposed and developed to further improve the utilization of load flexibility and increase the efficiency of power system operation. One of the biggest challenges to efficient control and operation of demand response resources is how to forecast the baseline electricity consumption and estimate the load impact from demand response resources accurately. In this paper, we propose a mixed effect segmented regression model and a new robust estimate for forecasting the baseline electricity consumption in Southern California, USA, by combining the ideas of random effect regression model, segmented regression model, and the least trimmed squares estimate. Since the log-likelihood of the considered model is not differentiable at breakpoints, we propose a new backfitting algorithm to estimate the unknown parameters. The estimation performance of the new estimation procedure has been demonstrated with both simulation studies and the real data application for the electric load baseline forecasting in Southern California.

42 ENGINEERING↗
DOE OSTI2020

Crack nucleation and growth during dynamic indentation of chemically-strengthened glass

Dynamic point impact loading is a primary cause of fracture of glass screens on mobile devices. An improved understanding of crack initiation and evolution under high-speed indentation could contribute to the development of materials with better performance, but experimental observations are challenging due to the short timescales and limited depth-of-field of optical microscopy. To address this need, we have observed fracture of a chemically-strengthened glass during dynamic indentation using in situ x-ray phase-contrast imaging (XPCI). Median cracks initiate below the surface of the glass, at a depth approximately corresponding to the depth at which the surface residual compressive stress diminishes to zero. These cracks initially propagate at ~10ms –1 , rapidly accelerating to > 100ms –1 . We also observe some evidence for rate-dependent behavior, in that indentation at the lowest rates studied here (below about ~0.15ms –1 ) fails to initiate cracks regardless of the depth of the indentation (up to 18μm), while indentation at higher rates produces median cracks that either arrest or cause complete fracture, depending on the depth of indentation.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2020

What does the future hold for utility electricity efficiency programs?

Here, this study develops projections of future spending and savings from electricity efficiency programs funded by electric utility customers in the United States through 2030 based on three scenarios. Our analysis relies on detailed bottom-up modeling of current state energy efficiency policies, demand-side management and integrated resource plans, and regulatory decisions. The three scenarios represent a range of potential outcomes given the policy environment at the time of the study and uncertainties in the broader economic and state policy environment in each state. We project spending to increase to $8.6 billion in 2030 in the medium scenario, about a 45 percent increase relative to 2016 spending. In the high case, annual spending increases to $11.1 billion in 2030 and remains relatively flat in the low case ($6.8 billion in 2030). Our analysis suggests that electricity efficiency programs funded by utility customers will continue to impact load growth significantly at least through 2030, as savings as a percent of retail sales are forecast at 0.7 percent in the medium scenario and 0.98 percent in the high scenario.

32 ENERGY CONSERVATION, CONSUMPTION, AND UTILIZATI↗
DOE OSTI2026

Comparison of the Effects of Bipolar Membrane Preparation Conditions on the Mechanical Durability and Electrochemical Performance for Electrodialysis Applications

Bipolar membranes (BPMs) are enabling materials for electrochemical conversion technologies such as water electrolysis, fuel cells, CO 2 electrolysis, and electrodialysis (ED) for direct air/ocean capture of CO 2 . However, current BPM durability can suffer from chemical, mechanical, and performance degradation when operated at high current density (ion flux) and physical scale. Therefore, this limits its adoption in a wider applications space. BPMs have several known degradation mechanisms, including chemical breakdown of ion-exchange polymers, loss of junction adhesion, or physical breakdown due to shearing force and pressure swings in an electrodialysis cell. To assess the electrochemical stability and mechanical durability of BPMs under operational conditions, we investigated how fabrication conditions (including preconditioning, hot-pressing temperature and pressure, and catalyst loading) impact the adhesion of custom-made BPMs. T-peel studies were performed ex situ to quantify adhesive forces of BPMs, and bipolar membrane electrodialysis (BPMED) experiments were performed to assess the electrochemical performance of the corresponding BPMs. The results of this systematic comparison indicate that hydration and heated pressing create improved adhesion during the fabrication of BPMs, and BPMED testing shows that these fabrication techniques are not detrimental to the electrochemical performance of the BPMs.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2025

Colloidal quantum dots for optoelectronics

Colloidal quantum dots (QDs) are semiconductor nanocrystals that have unique size-tunable optoelectronic properties and are suitable for wet processing. QD research aims to answer fundamental questions about the chemical and physical properties of nanoscale materials and use these tools for technological applications ranging from bio-imaging to quantum optics. At the core of this field is a set of synthetic, processing and analytical methods designed to produce QDs in uniform ensembles that meet the highest performance standards. Here, this Primer reviews QD fabrication methods with a focus on the applications of QDs in printed optoelectronics and quantum optics. After outlining the current state-of-the-art QD syntheses, the experimental and computational analysis of QDs is discussed. These topics are then connected to the methodologies, processes and concepts required for developing QD-based photodetectors, light-emitting devices and quantum optics applications. Special attention is paid to challenges in reproducibility and current limitations of the field, such as the need to balance non-restricted material composition with high performing technology while achieving long-term stability in QD devices under operating conditions. Finally, the ongoing advancement in QD synthesis, precise atomic-level analysis and computational methodologies are highlighted as key drivers towards rational QD design, particularly in understanding how structural changes under loading impact QD properties.

optical materials↗
DOE OSTI2020

A description of structured waves in shock compressed particulate composites

Dynamic compression of composite materials is of scientific interest because the mechanical mismatch between internal phases challenges continuum theories. Typical assumptions about steady wave propagation and quasi-instantaneous state changes require reexamination along with the need for time-dependent models. To that end, data and models are presented here for the shock compression of an idealized particulate composite. To serve as a generic representative of this material class, a polymer matrix was filled with tungsten particles, ranging from 1 to 50 vol. %. This creates a simple microstructure containing randomly scattered particles with an extreme impedance mismatch to the binding matrix. These materials were parallel plate impact loaded by Al flyers traveling at 1.8–5.0 km/s. Velocimetry provided records of the equilibrium state and the compression wave structure for each case with trends quantified by an empirical fit. The same quantities were also studied as a function of the wave's propagation distance. A homogenized viscoelastic model then made it possible to progress from cataloging trends to making predictions. Starting from a Mie–Gruneisen equation of state, additional time varying terms were added to capture the transient response. After calibration, accurate predictions of the steady wave structure were possible.

71 CLASSICAL AND QUANTUM MECHANICS, GENERAL PHYSIC↗
DOE OSTI2023

An assessment of spall failure modes in laser powder bed fusion fabricated stainless steel 316L with low-volume intentional porosity

Here, this paper reports on spall failure and damage modes in Laser Powder Bed Fusion fabricated Stainless Steel 316L (SS316L) with intentional levels of low-volume (1–5 vol. %) porosity and pore sizes of 200, 350, and 500 μm. The fabricated specimens were subjected to uniaxial-strain plate-impact loading at ~4.5 GPa, to initiate incipient spall failure. Analysis of velocimetry profiles measured using multi-probe photon-Doppler velocimetry coupled with post-mortem analysis of soft-recovered samples reveals local suppression of spall failure (termed as spall-dominated) as a function of porosity, as the failure mechanism transitions from spall-centered tensile stress dominated to a pore-centered microstructure-dominated damage mode involving void/crack nucleation and growth at pre-existing pores. The critical porosity level where the suppression of spall failure is first observed, as well as the spall location, is dependent on both the volume fraction and the size of the initially fabricated pores. In samples of 500 μm pore size, the suppression of spall failure is observed with as little as 1 vol. % porosity, while samples with smaller pores (200 μm) still experience spall-centered tensile stress dominated failure with higher levels (5 vol. %) of porosity. In the case of pore-centered microstructure-dominated failure, spall damage can occur but the spall plane is shifted toward the rear free surface, or more generally in areas further away from the region with pores. Highly heterogeneous deformation twinning, shear banding, grain rotation, and cracking are observed in the vicinity of pre-existing pores and expected spall failure sites.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2024

High-throughput quantification of quasistatic, dynamic and spall strength of materials across 10 orders of strain rates

Abstract The response of metals and their microstructures under extreme dynamic conditions can be markedly different from that under quasistatic conditions. Traditionally, high strain rates and shock stresses are achieved using cumbersome and expensive methods such as the Kolsky bar or large spall experiments. These methods are low throughput and do not facilitate high-fidelity microstructure–property linkages. In this work, we combine two powerful small-scale testing methods, custom nanoindentation, and laser-driven microflyer (LDMF) shock, to measure the dynamic and spall strength of metals. The nanoindentation system is configured to test samples from quasistatic to dynamic strain-rate regimes. The LDMF shock system can test samples through impact loading, triggering spall failure. The model material used for testing is magnesium alloys, which are lightweight, possess high-specific strengths, and have historically been challenging to design and strengthen due to their mechanical anisotropy. We adopt two distinct microstructures, solutionized (no precipitates) and peak-aged (with precipitates) to demonstrate interesting upticks in strain-rate sensitivity and evolution of dynamic strength. At high shock-loading rates, we unravel an interesting paradigm where the spall strength vs. strain rate of these materials converges, but the failure mechanisms are markedly different. Peak aging, considered to be a standard method to strengthen metallic alloys, causes catastrophic failure, faring much worse than solutionized alloys. Our high-throughput testing framework not only quantifies strength but also teases out unexplored failure mechanisms at extreme strain rates, providing valuable insights for the rapid design and improvement of materials for extreme environments.

Eswarappa Prameela, Suhas (ORCID:0000000334530184)↗
DOE OSTI2020

Development and Integration of Predictive Models for Manufacturing and Structural Performance of Carbon Fiber Composites in Automotive Applications (Final Report)

The goal of this project is to develop integrated, state-of-the-art, computational modeling tools based on an integrated computational materials engineering (ICME) methodology that are critically needed to enable structural carbon fiber (CF) applications in automobiles. These tools are designed to predict the manufacturing and structural performance of CF composites, including stochastic effects. During the first phase of the project, the manufacturing and structural performance tools, including a stochastic driver, were developed, calibrated, and validated against coupon and component level test results. For this project, from the manufacturing side, the development efforts were focused on high-pressure resin transfer molding (HP-RTM), a potentially game-changing manufacturing technology that is capable of reaching the 3-5-minute cycle time that is necessary for volume manufacturing of composites. On the structural performance side, the crashworthiness of CF structures was studied. Accordingly, computational tools were developed and validated. The resulting differences between the numerical predictions and the experimental results in the first phase of the project were required to be less than 15%. During the second phase of the project, the manufacturing and performance tools were integrated by mapping the manufacturing outcomes (e.g., fiber angles, residual stresses, degree of cure, and defects) into the structural models. Also, using the tools developed in this project, an automotive assembly currently manufactured in steel (2016 GM Malibu) was redesigned to be manufactured using advanced CF composites with the objective of comparing the performance of the CF assembly with the developed ICME model predictions. The weight, performance and cost of the CF assembly were compared with the baseline steel assembly as well. The CF underbody design was shown to be 30% lighter than the corresponding steel design. The CF underbody assembly withstood the side pole impact with less than half the intrusion for the steel assembly. Excellent correlations within 10% for both peak impact load and intrusion were observed between the numerical predictions and experimental results. Based on the cost models developed in the project, the cost increase per Kg saved was determined to be $22. The project team has prepared a total of 28 publications in various journals and conferences and broadly communicated the project results for the benefit of the composite industry. The project team has also prepared a total of 10 patent applications that were submitted to the US Patent and Trademark office.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2020

Transportation analysis and related design optimization of the Fermilab high-beta 650 MHz cryomodule

The Proton Improvement Plan-II (PIP-II) at Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory (FNAL) will create a new and vastly improved accelerator, which will be the source of high-energy particles for the experiments taking place at FNAL. The new linear accelerator (LINAC) contains several types of cryomodules, which are individual particle accelerators. The last cryomodule in the LINAC will be the High-Beta 650 (HB650), which will operate at 650 MHz. Each module is approximately 15 meters in length and 1.5 meters wide, weighs 13 tonnes, and shares many design features with three of the other cryomodules. The HB650 consists of two primary sections, the outer vacuum vessel and the components that reside within it, which will be cooled to cryogenic temperatures – the cold mass. Once assembly is complete at FNAL, it will be transported to one of three places: another location at FNAL, another national laboratory within the continental United States, or to a scientific partner in Europe. Any excitation the module experiences, such as going over rough roads when on a semitrailer, can create high stresses in components and cause failure if severe enough. Additionally, any delicate components with low resonant frequencies that match the excitation spectrum could achieve resonance, potentially causing a fatigue failure by repeated flexing. To ensure the successful transportation of the HB650, a transport analysis utilizing ANSYS simulation software has been performed on major subassemblies, as well as analysis of the subassemblies as a combined system. The optimization of components, design of support structures, and overall increasing of the lowest resonant frequencies have resulted in a cryomodule that will be better equipped to handle transportation and any large impact loads that come with it.

43 PARTICLE ACCELERATORS↗
DOE OSTI2022

Interactions between molecular-scale processes and hyporheic exchange for understanding Fe-S-C cycling in riparian wetlands (Final Report)

Wetlands represent some of the most productive ecosystems on the planet and critically influence global environmental health. Specifically, wetlands promote water quality by transforming nutrients and organic compounds and sequestering metals and contaminants. Riparian wetland hyporheic zones, where toxic surface water and anoxic groundwater mix, exhibit dynamic conditions that drive steep redox gradients and promote hotspots of diverse and fluctuating microbial activity. Changes in climate, water quality, and water quantity can disturb hydrologic flow and biogeochemical processing in these environments. Understanding how sulfate loading, impacted by hydrologic flux and anthropogenic inputs, influences iron and carbon cycling in wetlands will be crucial for predicting water quality issues driven by iron mineral precipitation and sorption, such as the release of heavy metals and other toxic elements. We used a fully integrated multi-scale and multi-method approach to develop a mechanistic understanding of how hydrologic flow influences coupled iron and sulfur cycles in riparian wetlands. This entailed hydrological, geochemical, and microbial observations at two locations: an anthropogenic sulfate-impacted riparian wetland in northern Minnesota, and a low-sulfate Fe-rich riparian wetland in Tims Branch at the Savannah River Site (SRS). These sites were characterized by hydrologically dynamic conditions where the stream and wetland systems oscillated between gaining (upward flow) and losing (downward flow) conditions that recharged the system occasionally with oxidants that fueled a variety of biogeochemical reactions. Aqueous geochemical measurements of surface water, groundwater, and porewater samples were made alongside solid-phase geochemical analyses of sediment gravity cores. Bulk X-ray absorption spectroscopy at the Advanced Photon Source (APS; Argonne) interrogated the speciation and distribution of Fe and S mineral phases of the sediments. Interestingly, it was discovered that, despite strongly reducing conditions, Fe(III) compounds and a variety of intermediate valence S compounds were stable in the subsurface. Indeed, compounds like thiosulfate, S(0), and intermediate valence organosulfur compounds were more prevalent than FeS and pyrite. The composition of the sediments did change with changes in hydrologic flow, showing their reactivity in changing redox conditions. The abundance of these intermediate S compounds was likely formed as a result of anaerobic oxidation by aqueous and solid-phase Fe(III) compounds, fueling a cryptic S cycle that is driving the breakdown of organic matter in the hyporheic zone. Microbiome surveys showed a core community that seemed stable across the landscape, but changed with increasing depth into the sediment. The community composition did not seem to change dramatically with changes in season or hydrologic flow, except for some organisms that have the potential to contribute to S cycling. More work is needed to confirm their functional activity. These fine process-scale analyses were placed within a dynamic field context using physical flow parameters from surface water and groundwater level measurements. These data helped shed light on sulfur-driven biogeochemical processes in hydrologically dynamic riparian wetlands, addressing a gap in our understanding about the impacts of pollution and other anthropogenic changes on ecologically sensitive environments.

54 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES↗
DOE OSTI2025

Energy impacts of nationwide window upgrades in commercial buildings

This report presents comprehensive estimates of the energy impacts of nationwide commercial building window upgrades in the United States, using a conservative approach. Windows play a substantial role in determining building energy use and occupant experience. Estimates point to commercial building windows impacting loads that represent more than 6 quads (approximately 6%) of annual primary energy use in the U.S. (Harris, 2022). Beyond heating and cooling loads, windows also have effects on lighting and occupant comfort. The fastest route to improving the energy efficiency of windows in U.S. buildings is upgrading or replacing windows in existing buildings. This is due to poor performance of windows in older existing buildings compared to most new construction, low levels of window replacement, and long window service life compared to energy-using building components. Nationwide window upgrades were considered using the following technologies: • Secondary glazing systems • Double pane (clear and tinted) • Triple pane (clear and tinted) • Electrochromic glazing Nationwide upgrades provide on the order of 4%–6% site energy savings in typical buildings, or up to 26% in buildings with the highest savings potential. Electrochromic windows, with their ability to adapt dynamically to environmental conditions, can provide additional benefits, ranging from median savings of 7.2% in buildings with window to wall ratio (WWR) greater than 10% and up to 28% for some buildings. Savings increase substantially for buildings with higher WWR. This study’s approach focused on isolating the direct energy benefits from improvement in window performance, and does not take into account the following additional benefits from window retrofits, which are likely to be substantial: • Managing peak demand and enabling HVAC equipment downsizing. • Energy savings from customizing upgrades to building type and climate. • Energy savings and comfort improvements resulting from post-retrofit reductions in air leakage. • Non-energy benefits, such as occupant comfort and resilience during extreme weather.

32 ENERGY CONSERVATION, CONSUMPTION, AND UTILIZATI↗
DOE OSTI2025

Validation of a Co-Optimized, Smart Hybrid Heat Pump Control

This study examines a residential dual fuel (DF) heating system that integrates heat pump and gas furnace technology with a home’s forced-air distribution ducts. Specifically, it explores a retrofit where an “add-on” heat pump replaces the air conditioning (A/C) system and is combined with the home’s existing furnace and air handler. The research team developed and validated an innovative control scheme for this integrated DF system that selected the more economical heating source (furnace or heat pump) while maintaining comfort in the home. The project’s field study and subsequent modeling analysis show that this control scheme can decrease energy use, cost, and emissions compared to a furnace-only system. As homes in mixed and cold climates transition to more electric space heating, furnace-to-dual fuel system retrofits offer a solution that can alleviate the retrofit costs, energy cost concerns, and peak load impacts of full electrification.

32 ENERGY CONSERVATION, CONSUMPTION, AND UTILIZATI↗
DOE OSTI2025

Potential Impacts of Dynamic Electricity Pricing in California: Load Shape and Customer Bill Impacts Under Elastic Customer Response

The increasing penetration of renewable energy in California has intensified grid management challenges, exemplified by the “duck curve” and the resulting need for steep ramping and curtailment of renewables. To address these issues, dynamic electricity tariffs that vary in near-real time are being considered to incentivize customers to shift demand and support the grid. This study extends previous work on the bill impacts of such tariffs in the absence of load response by quantifying the system-level and customer impacts of load response based on customer price elasticity. Customer-level load response modeling was conducted using meter data from 411,000 customers across residential, commercial, and industrial sectors. Customer demand elasticity was estimated using literature-based values, with scenarios ranging from low to high elasticity, including an automation-enhanced scenario. Results indicate that universal adoption of, and response to, dynamic tariffs can significantly reduce peak net load (by 15%) and maximum ramping requirements (by 20%) with moderate elasticity, delivering demand response resources comparable to or exceeding current programs at all elasticity levels. Bill analysis shows that, when responding elastically to dynamic prices, most non-PV customers experience modest savings, while PV customers may see higher effective rates due to lower compensation for exports during low-price periods. Emissions analysis reveals a reduction in per-kWh emissions system-wide, with a total absolute load increase of 2% accompanied by a negligible absolute emissions increase. The study concludes that while dynamic tariffs offer substantial grid benefits, customer bill savings under modeled response behaviors may be too modest to drive widespread adoption without additional incentives or enabling technologies. Future research should model flexible loads and advanced control technologies with greater fidelity to better represent the potential opportunities of dynamic tariffs.

24 POWER TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION↗
DOE OSTI2025

Characterization of wind conditions and impact on wind loading at an operational parabolic trough concentrating solar power plant using LiDAR observations

Wind loading is a major factor influencing the structural design costs of Concentrating Solar Power (CSP) collector systems, including heliostats and parabolic troughs. Traditionally, these designs have been based on wind-tunnel data, which often fail to accurately represent the dynamic effects experienced at full scale. This study presents a first-of-its-kind experimental characterization of wind conditions within an operational parabolic-trough CSP power plant focusing specifically on using lidar observations. The lidar observations give a unique opportunity to provide insights into wind flow conditions deep within the trough arrays. Our results suggest that (1) after being blocked by the first few rows, the wind speed above the troughs recovers to 73% of its inflow magnitude as it flows further over the trough field due to enhanced turbulent mixing and (2) due to the wind speed recovery, troughs in the interior field will likely experience higher shear-induced turning moments compared those at the front. The conclusions from this work stress the importance of better understanding the wind patterns and interior wind loads when designing solar collectors and highlights the need for more interior load measurements in the future field campaigns.

17 WIND ENERGY↗
DOE OSTI2021

Impact of particle loading and phase coupling on gas–solid flow dynamics: A case study of a two-phase, gas–solid flow in an annular pipe

The present study is devoted to a two-phase, gas–solid flow in an annular pipe (hollow cylinder) at an elevated pressure of 15 bars and moderate Reynolds number of circa 6000. The influence of the particle loading, the interaction between the phases, and turbulence dispersion on the flow dynamics is systematically studied by means of computational fluid dynamics simulations, employing the Ansys FLUENT commercial package. The cases with a particle volumetric fraction of 1.2% are referred to as “high particle loading,” and those with 0.13% are denoted as “low particle loading.” The following cases are investigated: (1) pure gas flow; (2) low particle loading two-phase flow with one-way coupling and with turbulence dispersion; (3) low particle loading two-phase flow with two-way coupling but without turbulence dispersion; (4) low particle loading two-phase flow with two-way coupling and with turbulence dispersion; (5) high particle loading two-phase flow with one-way coupling and with turbulence dispersion; (6) high particle loading two-phase flow with two-way coupling but without turbulence dispersion; and (7) high particle loading two-phase flow with two-way coupling and with turbulence dispersion. Additionally, the boundary layer is found to grow without fluctuations of the turbulent kinetic energy (TKE) for cases 1, 2, and 5. For case 4, the TKE fluctuations have been identified, although they appear to be less substantial than those in cases 6 and 7. The authors attribute the semi-chaotic nature of the TKE fluctuations to the particle loading and two-way coupling. In addition, the onset and development of the flow instability have been observed at a random axial distance in cases 4, 6, and 7. Such instability is also attributed to the two-way coupling with turbulence dispersion in the flow. It is concluded that the particle loading, one-way, or two-way coupling between the phases, and the turbulence dispersion models significantly influence the development of the flow dynamics with the same inlet and boundary conditions. Consequently, it is not a trivial question, which result a user should trust. The present computational results inspire to perform verification as well as experimental validation of the simulations, so the simulation results can subsequently be used with confidence for design analysis.

42 ENGINEERING↗