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Search indexed NASA NTRS and DOE OSTI research on propulsion, heat transfer, battery materials and energy systems. Follow report and document links to the original sources.

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At least 55 records · Page 3
All sourcesNASA NTRSDOE OSTI
DOE OSTI2023

Spheroidization of Nd–Fe–B particles

Spherical powders are required for many advanced manufacturing techniques due to their inherent requirement of flowability, either within feed tubes or during powder spreading. As advanced manufacturing of magnets continues to develop, new production methods for feedstocks are also sought. Plasma spheroidization is a high-yield method to produce spherical Nd–Fe–B powders from irregularly shaped particles, with advantages including high throughput and a well-controlled size distribution. Highly spherical Nd–Fe–B powders with large scale production (i.e., kg) have been demonstrated using an inductively coupled thermal plasma system; however, the magnetic properties of the output powder display significant degradation. The coercivity was decreased from the initial 8 kOe (636 kA/m) of the as-received to 0.7 kOe (55 kA/m) for spheroidized powders. Microstructural investigation reveals 6% Nd depletion caused by the extreme temperatures of the plasma, leading to the formation of low-coercivity α-Fe and a subsequent decrease in energy product. In conclusion, post-spheroidization heat treatments with Nd can partially mitigate the coercivity degradation, increasing to 1.7 kOe (135 kA/m), potentially offering a pathway toward spherical powders for a range of applications.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2025

Thermodynamic Theory of Proximity Ferroelectricity

Proximity ferroelectricity has recently been reported as a new design paradigm for inducing ferroelectricity, where a nonferroelectric polar material becomes a ferroelectric one by interfacing with a thin ferroelectric layer. Strongly polar materials, such as AlN and ZnO, which were previously unswitchable with an external field below their dielectric breakdown fields, can now be switched with practical coercive fields when they are in intimate proximity to a switchable ferroelectric. Here, we develop a general Landau-Ginzburg theory of proximity ferroelectricity in multilayers of nonferroelectrics and ferroelectrics to analyze their switchability and coercive fields. The theory predicts regimes of both “proximity switching,” where the multilayers collectively switch, and “proximity suppression,” where they collectively do not switch. The mechanism of the proximity ferroelectricity is an internal electric field determined by the polarization of the layers and their relative thickness in a self-consistent manner that renormalizes the double-well ferroelectric potential to lower the steepness of the switching barrier. Further reduction in the coercive field emerges from charged defects in the bulk that act as nucleation centers. The application of the theory to proximity ferroelectricity in Al x−1⁢ Sc x ⁢N/AlN and Zn 1−x ⁢Mg x ⁢O/ZnO bilayers is demonstrated. The theory further predicts that dielectric-ferroelectric and paraelectric-ferroelectric multilayers can potentially lead to induced ferroelectricity in the dielectric or paraelectric layers, resulting in the entire stack being switched, an exciting avenue for new discoveries. This thawing of “frozen ferroelectrics,” paraelectrics, and potentially dielectrics with high dielectric constants promises a large class of new ferroelectrics with exciting prospects for previously unrealizable domain-patterned optoelectronic and memory technologies.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
NASA NTRS1981

Magnetization of small iron-nickel spheres

Magnetic properties of small iron-nickel alloy spheres, having compositions which cover the entire Fe-Ni binary, are presented. The spheres were formed during solidification in free fall following the melting of electropolished wires of appropriate composition. The spheres with Ni not greater than 25% acquired a martensitic thermal remanence while those with Ni not less than 30% acquired a thermoremanent magnetization. A magnetic remanence-composition diagram and a coercive force-composition diagram are constructed. Magnetic hysteresis loops and derived parameters demonstrate the difference between metal-bearing and oxide-bearing natural samples. The magnetic remanence varies as the sphere size in conjunction with the microstructure. These results help to explain why coercive force is generally low, remanent coercive force is generally high, and their ratio (R/C) is always large in fine metal dispersions, such as lunar samples and chondrite meteorites.

Wasilewski, P.↗
DOE OSTI2026

Role of washing solvents in defining the magnetic performance of Sm 2 Fe 17 N 3 obtained by reduction diffusion

Calciothermic reduction-diffusion (RD) is one of the leading synthesis methods for Sm 2 Fe 17 N 3 (SmFeN), but sintering of such RD-derived powders is hampered by oxidation and CaO byproducts. Here, we systematically evaluate how post-synthesis washing solvents govern powder chemistry and magnetic performance. RD-synthesized SmFeN powder was washed with several aqueous and non-aqueous solvents using identical washing protocols. This was followed by an assessment of both the as-washed powder as well as after annealing at 425 °C. Phase content was quantified by synchrotron PXRD and Rietveld refinement and SEM/EDS. The oxygen content of the powders was determined via inert gas fusion and the magnetization by DC magnetometry. While all aqueous-based solutions were able to remove CaO, the non-aqueous solutions were only effective with extended washing times. Prior to annealing, the crystalline phases and magnetic properties of the as-washed powders were largely the same regardless of washing solvent. However, differences emerge after annealing, where water-based washing markedly lowers the coercivity (H c ~3.8-4.3 kOe). In contrast, non-aqueous NH 4 Cl-methanol washing protocols were more effective in preserving coercivity (H c ~4.9-5.9 kOe). We attribute this to lower oxygen content in the non-aqueous samples (~9,400 ppm v ~6,400 ppm, respectively) which in turn reduced the formation of α-Fe during annealing. These results highlight the importance of solvent choice in washing RD-synthesized SmFeN and demonstrate that non-aqueous protocols, which better limit oxidation, outperform aqueous solvents despite the need for longer washing times.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2025

Effect of vanadium on phase composition and hard magnetic properties of as-solidified and heat-treated Sm–Fe–(Ti,V) alloys

Although the intrinsic magnetic properties of Ti-stabilized Sm(Fe,Co,Ti) 12 compounds exhibit potential of excellent rare-earth-lean permanent magnets, it has been much easier to realize large coercivities with the isostructural compounds stabilized by either V or by certain combinations of Ti and V. To elucidate the influence of V on the microstructure and magnetic properties, a series of Sm 8.1 Fe 78.4 (Ti 1-x V x ) 13.5 alloys was studied after arc-melting and annealing at 850–1000 °C. The alloys were found to fall into three groups. For x ≤ 0.2, solidification generates mostly the Sm(Fe,Ti,V) 12 phase, but annealing converts at least part of it into the non-magnetic Sm(Fe,Ti,V) 11 and the magnetically soft Sm 2 (Fe,Ti,V) 17 phases. For 0.2 < x < 0.6, the alloys solidify into a near-equilibrium mixture of the Sm(Fe,Ti,V) 12 , TiFe 2 and Sm-rich phases. For x ≥ 0.6, solidification generates large fractions of α-Fe solid solution and Sm-rich phases; an annealing step is necessary to complete the formation of Sm(Fe,Ti,V) 12 phase. Also, for x ≥ 0.6 the temperature below which the Sm(Fe,Ti,V) 12 phase is stable decreases with x, as does the fraction of this phase formed during solidification. Here, the differences between these three groups of alloys suggest different strategies for developing hard magnetic properties, with the likelihood of a success increasing with increasing x. For x ≥ 0.6, heat treatment alone is demonstrated to generate a microstructure of micron and submicron Sm(Fe,Ti 1-x V x ) 12 crystallites separated by a Sm-rich phase and exhibiting a coercivity with values up to 3.5 and 5.7 kOe for x = 0.8 and 1.0, respectively.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2022

Chemical Tuning Meets 2D Molecular Magnets

Two-dimensional (2D) magnets provoke a surge of interest in large anisotropy in reduced dimensions and are promising for next-generation information technology where dynamic magnetic tuning is essential. Until recently, the crucial metal-organic magnet Cr(pyz) 2 ∙xLiCl∙yTHF with considerable high coercivity and high-temperature magnetic order opens up a new platform to control magnetism in metal-organic materials at room temperature. Here we report an in-situ chemical tuning route to realize the controllable transformation of low-temperature magnetic order into room-temperature hard magnetism in Cr(pyz) 2 ∙xLiCl∙yTHF. The chemical tuning via electrochemical lithiation and solvation/desolvation exhibits continuously variable magnetic features from cryogenic magnetism to the room-temperature optimum performance of coercivity (H c ) of 8500 Oe and energy product of 0.6 MGOe. Such chemically flexible tunability of room-temperature magnetism is ascribed to the different degrees of lithiation and solvation that modify the stoichiometry and Cr-pyrazine coordination framework. Furthermore, the additively manufactured hybrid magnets show air stability and electromagnetic induction, providing potential applications. Our findings here suggest chemical tuning as a universal approach to control the anisotropy and magnetism of 2D hybrid magnets at room temperature, promising for data storage, magnetic refrigeration, and spintronics.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2024

Epitaxial Growth of Large-Scale 2D CrTe 2 Films on Amorphous Silicon Wafers With Low Thermal Budget

2D van der Waals (vdW) magnets open landmark horizons in the development of innovative spintronic device architectures. However, their fabrication with large scale poses challenges due to high synthesis temperatures (>500 °C) and difficulties in integrating them with standard complementary metal-oxide semiconductor (CMOS) technology on amorphous substrates such as silicon oxide (SiO 2 ) and silicon nitride (SiN x ). Here, a seeded growth technique for crystallizing CrTe 2 films on amorphous SiN x /Si and SiO 2 /Si substrates with a low thermal budget is presented. This fabrication process optimizes large-scale, granular atomic layers on amorphous substrates, yielding a substantial coercivity of 11.5 kilo-oersted, attributed to weak intergranular exchange coupling. Field-driven Néel-type stripe domain dynamics explain the amplified coercivity. Moreover, the granular CrTe 2 devices on Si wafers display significantly enhanced magnetoresistance, more than doubling that of single-crystalline counterparts. Current-assisted magnetization switching, enabled by a substantial spin–orbit torque with a large spin Hall angle (85) and spin Hall conductivity (1.02 × 10 7 ℏ/2e Ω -1 m -1 ), is also demonstrated. These observations underscore the proficiency in manipulating crystallinity within integrated 2D magnetic films on Si wafers, paving the way for large-scale batch manufacturing of practical magnetoelectronic and spintronic devices, heralding a new era of technological innovation.

2D magnetic thin films↗
DOE OSTI2025

Solution‐Phase Metathesis of Li 3 N and FeCl 3 to Synthesize Fe 2 N/Fe 3 N Nanoparticles

Soft magnetic materials play key roles in the flow of energy in electrically driven machines and power conversion electronics, and there is a great need for improvements in their magnetic properties to provide the right combination of high saturation magnetization, low coercivity, and high permeability. Most phases of iron nitride (Fe x N) are soft magnetic materials with these characteristics, but they exist as numerous phases which are not all stoichiometric compounds. While the production and magnetic properties of the different phases of bulk iron nitride are well known, accessing phase‐pure nanoscale iron nitride consistently remains a challenge. Most methods for the synthesis of iron nitride nanoparticles require complicated apparatus to achieve high‐temperature nitriding of nanoparticle precursors with gaseous nitrogen sources such as ammonia. The first solution‐phase metathesis reaction between FeCl 3 and Li 3 N in oleylamine is developed to directly synthesize Fe 2 N/Fe 3 N nanoparticles, requiring only a fume hood, glove box, standard chemistry laboratory glassware, and equipment. Finally, the ≈10–15 nm spheres display nearly soft magnetic behavior with a saturation magnetization ≈50–60 A m 2 kg −1 , coercivities between 40–50 kA m −1 , and susceptibility values from 0.0001–0.0006 m 3 kg −1 , well within the ranges reported with other published Fe x N nanoparticle synthesis methods.

iron nitride↗
DOE OSTI2024

Hot-Roll Fabrication of Anisotropic Nanograin Nd-Fe-B Magnet

Nd-Fe-B based magnets have the highest energy product among all permanent magnets, which is required for numerous clean energy technologies. For higher temperature applications (T > 150°C), additions of heavy rare earth elements (HREEs) such as Dy are required to maintain sufficient coercivity during operation. Additions of Dy are expensive. Thus, it is desirable to reduce the need for HREEs by reducing the grain size to the nanoscale, which increases the coercivity and decreases its temperature dependence. Here, we report a novel nanograin Nd-Fe-B magnet fabrication method that is continuous and inexpensive. The process uses mechanically milled Nd-Fe-B melt-spun flakes as feedstock powder that is packed into a metal vessel and then hot rolled to form a fully dense and highly textured strip magnet with tailored thicknesses, down to 800 µm. Finally, using this process, fully dense nanograin bulk magnets can be synthesized in minutes compared to the traditional multi-step processes that are typically low throughput.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2023

Exceptional magnetic and magnetoelastic behavior of rare-earth non-centrosymmetric Sm 7 Pd 3

Magnetic compounds possessing an intrinsic combination of near-zero magnetization with high magnetic anisotropy are highly desirable for spinronic applications and memory recording. A comprehensive study of Sm 7 Pd 3 binary compound uncovered a unique combination of strong magnetoelastic behavior, very low net magnetization, and exceptionally high magnetic coercivity. The temperature-dependent X-ray synchrotron powder diffraction study indicates the abrupt changes in the compound's lattice parameters at the magnetic ordering temperature of T C =169 K, although the crystal structure remains non-centrosymmetric hexagonal Th 7 Fe 3 -type down to 6 K. Density functional theory calculations confirm high intrinsic magnetocrystalline anisotropy of Sm 7 Pd 3 , which explains the extremely large coercivity of the polycrystalline sample, up to H cr = 130 kOe at 2 K. In conclusion, this discovery brings to life a novel class of highly anisotropic materials that are distinctly different from known spintronic materials, making them interesting future systems for magnetic memory research.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2025

Switching kinetics in ferroelectric zinc magnesium oxide thin films

The switching kinetics of RF-magnetron reactively sputtered ~200 nm thick Zn 1-x Mg x O (ZMO) ferroelectric thin films with x = 0.41 and x = 0.27 prepared on Pt/Ti/SiO 2 /Si substrates were studied at applied fields near the coercive fields, ranging from 3.4 to 5.1 MV cm -1 , and at temperatures ranging from room temperature to 100 °C. Polarization reversal in ZMO followss the Kolmogorov-Avrami-Ishibashi kinetics model for nucleation and growth at applied fields near the coercive field, and obeys an individual column switching (ICS) model at higher applied fields required to switch most of the spontaneous polarization. Switching in the high-applied field regime can be described using either the Gaussian or inverse gamma distribution functions depending on the mole fraction of magnesium in the film. The switching current transients of the high-Mg content ZMO film (x = 0.41) are always bi-modal, whereas the low Mg composition film (x = 0.27) is described by the Gaussian distribution initially following wake-up, and becomes bimodal with continued cycling. Rayleigh-like behavior of the dielectric constant revealed a simultaneous increase of the irreversible and decrease of the reversible contributions to the dielectric constant, which was ascribed to an increase in the density of mobile domain walls with cycling and resulted in faster switching.

30 DIRECT ENERGY CONVERSION↗
DOE OSTI2025

Minimizing particle aggregation in Sm 2 Fe 17 N 3 powders: A CaO-assisted reduction-diffusion approach

We report a novel synthesis of Sm 2 Fe 17 N 3 powders using a CaO-assisted reduction-diffusion (RD) approach. CaO plays a crucial role during mechanochemical processing – acting both as a dispersant and a surface coating agent, which helps to prevent agglomeration due to sintering of Sm 2 Fe 17 particles during the RD step. Together with the added dispersant, the CaO by-product formed during RD can be easily removed in the washing step resulting in fewer aggregated Sm 2 Fe 17 N 3 particles and lower oxygen contamination in the final product. The impact of varying CaO amounts was examined, and synthesis conditions were optimized to achieve phase-pure Sm 2 Fe 17 N 3 powders with less aggregation of magnetic particles. The powders synthesized with addition of 1 wt% CaO as dispersant exhibited the highest hard-magnetic properties: a coercivity (H c ) of 10.7 kOe and a maximum energy product ((BH) max ) of 17.3 MGOe. By densifying the Sm 2 Fe 17 N 3 powders using high-pressure spark plasma sintering, a bulk magnet with a (BH) max of 21.1 MGOe with 88 % of theoretical density was produced. In conclusion, reducing aggregation of the Sm 2 Fe 17 N 3 increases coercivity and remanence of these magnets.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2025

Microstructure refinement of hot deformed Dy-free NdFeB magnets through a novel cold sintering approach by pressure-assisted spark plasma sintering

Anisotropic fine-grained Dy-free NdFeB high-performance magnets were produced using a novel cold sintering approach by pressure-assisted spark plasma sintering (SPS). The NdFeB nanocrystalline ribbon powders were subjected to cold sintering below 450 °C using pressure-assisted SPS, followed by hot deformation at 710 °C and 810 °C via SPS. Results indicate that cold sintering below 450 °C effectively restricts grain growth in the NdFeB magnets, yielding sub-100 nm scale grains across both fine-grained regions and most coarse-grained regions. The refined grain structure achieved through cold sintering allows for a lower hot deformation temperature as compared with the magnet by conventional sintering, as finer grains allow easier deformation and grain sliding/rotation. This process produces a highly fine-grained and anisotropic microstructure to achieve high magnetic performance (i.e., high intrinsic coercivity, remanence, and maximum energy product) in the magnets. The cold sintering (at 350 °C) and lower hot deformation temperatures required (e.g., 710 °C) help control grain coarsening and limit grain size that is commensurate with the size of a single magnetic domain of the Nd 2 Fe 14 B magnetic matrix phase, resulting in high intrinsic coercivity (H ci =11.4 kOe). Furthermore, the reduced hot deformation temperature mitigates the formation of coarse grain bands, leading to improved magnetic properties, specifically an increased remanence (B r = 14.3 kGs) and a high maximum energy product ((BH) max = 48 MGOe). In conclusion, cold sintered hot deformed NdFeB magnet also shows good thermal stability with reversible temperature coefficient α(B r )= -0.097 %/K and α(H ci )= -0.616 %/K at elevated temperatures up to 400 K.

Cold Sintering↗
DOE OSTI2023

Decoupling the effects of texture and composition on magnetic properties of Fe-Si sheet processed by shear deformation

Soft magnetic Fe-Si alloys (electrical steels) possess exceptional functional properties such as high permeability, low coercivity, and low core loss, which generally improve with increasing Si content in the alloy. However, Fe-Si alloys containing > 3.5 wt% Si are also characterized by prohibitively low workability and poor ductility that have prevented their efficient commercial production in sheet form by rolling. This has limited their use for improving efficiency of motors and transformers. In this study, hybrid cutting-extrusion (HCE) is used as a single-step thermomechanical processing method to produce continuous Fe-Si alloy sheet with high Si compositions of 4 wt% to 6.5 wt%. HCE sheet is shown to have a homogeneous annealed grain structure and simple-shear crystallographic textures. By controlling the HCE deformation path, varied crystallographic shear textures are created in the sheet. Quasi-static magnetic properties of the HCE sheet are evaluated to decouple the effects of sheet texture and Si composition on resultant permeability and coercivity properties. The results suggest that HCE, with suitable process scaling, is a viable route for production of high-Si content electrical steel sheet for next-generation motors and transformers.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2023

Influence of energy density on the microstructure, growth orientation, and anisotropy of magnetic properties in additively manufactured Fe-3.8wt%Si transformer steels

Fe-3.8wt%Si transformer steels were processed using two different additive manufacturing (AM) techniques, laser powder bed fusion (LPBF) and directed energy deposition (DED). While the LPBF processed samples exhibited a strong <001> orientation of the BCC grains along the build axis, the DED processed samples exhibited a randomized texture along the build axis. DED processed samples showed substantially coarser columnar grains as compared to their LPBF counterparts. Here, the columnar grains exhibited a substantial number of low-angle sub-grain boundaries. All samples exhibited very good soft magnetic properties, with saturation magnetization (M s ) values ranging from 205 - 232 emu/gm, and coercivity (H c ) values ranging from 1.2 – 4.2 Oe. The Coercivity (H c ) values were significantly lower when the magnetic field was applied parallel to the build axis, as compared to being perpendicular, which can be rationalized based on the columnar nature of the grains, resulting in a higher number density of grain boundaries in case of the field applied perpendicular to the build axis.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2025

MnBi 2 Is a Permanent Magnet

Creating and understanding new permanent magnets requires an understanding of the impact of orbital angular momentum on coercivity. A simple approach to interrogating this relationship is by incorporating high Z (where Z is the atomic number) elements into binary compounds to maximize spin–orbit coupling. The Mn–Bi system is an appealing platform for these studies since it contains MnBi, a permanent magnet with a large coercive field. We previously identified a new compound in the Mn–Bi system, MnBi 2 , but could not elucidate its magnetic properties ex situ due to its decomposition upon decompression. Here, we harnessed synchrotron X-ray magnetic circular dichroism to probe the magnetism of MnBi 2 at high pressure within a diamond anvil cell. Our results indicate that MnBi 2 exhibits ferromagnetic hysteresis at both 10 K and room temperature. Through calculations and experiments, we show that orbital angular momentum and spin–orbit coupling from Bi impart magnetic anisotropy in MnBi 2 . Comparing the Mn–Bi family of compounds, we consider the Bi p and d orbitals to explain the differences in magnetic behavior within the system. Collectively, these results validate leveraging high-Z elements in the synthesis of new hard permanent magnets.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗
DOE OSTI2025

Superstructure magnetic anisotropy in Fe 3 O 4 nanoparticle chains

Magnetic anisotropy is essential for many applications of ferromagnetic/ferrimagnetic materials, including permanent magnets and magnetic recording media. Attempts have been made recently to build up 3-D nanoparticle and quantum dot assemblies, however, it is not understood yet if a nanoparticle assembly can possess high magnetic anisotropy with low anisotropic materials. In this article, we report our discovery of high magnetic anisotropy resulted from Fe 3 O 4 nanoparticle chains. We started with closely-packed nanoparticle assemblies of spherical Fe 3 O 4 nanoparticles that exhibit low magnetocrystalline anisotropy and shape anisotropy, and corresponding negligible coercivity. When the nanoparticle assemblies are compressed under pressure, they form bundles or arrays that consist of Fe 3 O 4 chains with a length scale of several hundred nanometers. Magnetic measurements show that these Fe 3 O 4 chain arrays possess a high uniaxial magnetic anisotropy (K eff ~ 2.9×10 5 J/m 3 ) and significant magnetic coercivity. Our simulations reveal that interparticle magnetic dipolar interactions contribute to this type of superstructure magnetic anisotropy. This study demonstrates the feasibility and approaches to create “patterned” high magnetic anisotropy in nanoparticle superstructures/assemblies.

Mohapatra, Jeotikanta (ORCID:0000000151968626)↗
DOE OSTI2024

Block copolymer self-assembly derived mesoporous magnetic materials with three-dimensionally (3D) co-continuous gyroid nanostructure

Magnetic nanomaterials are gaining interest for their many applications in technological areas from information science and computing to next-generation quantum energy materials. While magnetic materials have historically been nanostructured through techniques such as lithography and molecular beam epitaxy, there has recently been growing interest in using soft matter self-assembly. In this work, a triblock terpolymer, poly(isoprene-block-styrene-block-ethylene oxide) (ISO), is used as a structure directing agent for aluminosilicate sol nanoparticles and magnetic material precursors to generate organic–inorganic bulk hybrid films with co-continuous morphology. After thermal processing into mesoporous materials, results from a combination of small angle X-ray scattering (SAXS) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) are consistent with the double gyroid morphology. Nitrogen sorption measurements reveal a type IV isotherm with H1 hysteresis, and yield a specific surface area of around 200 m 2 g −1 and an average pore size of 23 nm. The magnetization of the mesostructured material as a function of applied field shows magnetic hysteresis and coercivity at 300 K and 10 K. Comparison of magnetic measurements between the mesoporous gyroid and an unstructured bulk magnetic material, derived from the identical inorganic precursors, reveals the structured material exhibits a coercivity of 250 Oe, opposed to 148 Oe for the unstructured at 10 K, and presence of remnant magnetic moment not conventionally found in bulk hematite; both of these properties are attributed to the mesostructure. This scalable route to mesoporous magnetic materials with co-continuous morphologies from block copolymer self-assembly may provide a pathway to advanced magnetic nanomaterials with a range of potential applications.

Chemistry↗