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NASA NTRS2015

Mars Hybrid Propulsion System Trajectory Analysis: Cargo Missions - Part II

NASA's Human Spaceflight Architecture Team is developing a reusable hybrid transportation architecture in which both chemical and electric propulsion systems are used to send crew and cargo to Mars destinations such as Phobos, Deimos, the surface of Mars, and other orbits around Mars. By combining chemical and electrical propulsion into a single spaceship and applying each where it is more effective, the hybrid architecture enables a series of Mars trajectories that are more fuel-efficient than an all chemical architecture without significant increases in flight times. This paper shows the feasibility of the hybrid transportation architecture to pre-deploy cargo to Mars and Phobos in support of the Evolvable Mars Campaign crew missions. The analysis shows that the hybrid propulsion stage is able to deliver all of the current manifested payload to Phobos and Mars through the first three crew missions. The conjunction class trajectory also allows the hybrid propulsion stage to return to Earth in a timely fashion so it can be reused for additional cargo deployment. The 1,100 days total trip time allows the hybrid propulsion stage to deliver cargo to Mars every other Earth-Mars transit opportunity. For the first two Mars surface mission in the Evolvable Mars Campaign, the short trip time allows the hybrid propulsion stage to be reused for three round-trip journeys to Mars, which matches the hybrid propulsion stage's designed lifetime for three round-trip crew missions to the Martian sphere of influence.

Chai, Patrick R.↗

NASA NTRS2017

Human Cargo Resupply Logistics at Mars Using 150kW SEP Tug Cyclers

The ultimate goal of the Evolvable Mars Campaign is to build up a sustainable outpost at Mars that would be continually staffed with rotating crews. During this stage of human Mars exploration, it would be necessary to provision the crews with equipment and supplies both before and during their missions. In this paper, we study the use of 150 kW reusable SEP tugs as a means to deliver elements both to orbit and to the surface. The SEP tugs would make use of technology currently being developed for the proposed Asteroid Robotic Redirect Mission (ARRM). They would also be used to deliver food and supplies to sustain the crews similar to resupply missions for the International Space Station. The SEP tugs envisioned would be staged at a quasi-stable Lunar Near Rectilinear Orbit (NRO). The tugs would then mate with cargo vessels and xenon propellant being delivered by an SLS launch vehicle and continue on to Mars orbit where the cargo is delivered and the SEP tug returns to NRO to repeat the process. It was found that it is more efficient to deliver surface cargo via direct launch and entry versus using the tug cycler. Thousands of optimized low-thrust trajectories were simulated in order to create “Bacon plots” (like porkchop plots, but for low thrust transfers) in order to map out potential trajectories for dates from 2039 to 2052. This study maps out the buildup of a surface outpost as well as the necessary orbital and surface resupply launches in order to maintain it. In the steady state, a cadence of 9 cargo launches is required every 4 years to sustain the human outpost.

Post, Kevin↗

NASA NTRSDate not supplied

DAA Use Case for Auto Cargo m:N Operations

A detect and avoid use-case was developed to highlight detect and avoid issues associated with m:N operations in the auto cargo domain. This work is being done in conjunction with industry partners and developed for the Operational Scenario and Environmental Description (OSED) for RTCA SC-228. The detect and avoid function is critical, required technology for unmanned aircraft to operation in the national airspace. RTCA SC-228 has published MOPS (phase 1 & 2) detailing the requirements and methods of compliance. This work will help address additional operational aspects of how/when DAA will be employed by unmanned systems. Specifically, this work focuses on “auto cargo” operations. Auto cargo, in this context, refers to regularly scheduled cargo-size aircraft that are flown remotely. The Remote Pilot In Command (RPIC), in this case, is responsible for multiple aircraft, flown simultaneously. The use-case details the use of DAA in this context, the potential issues and gaps that exist.

multi-vehicle control↗

DOE OSTI2024

Modeled Electricity Demand Profiles for Electric Port Cargo Handling Equipment in the United States

Electric port cargo handling equipment (eCHE) hourly load datasets for the top 25 U.S. cargo airports (by tonnage), as described in Polemis et al. (2025). Please cite as: Polemis, Katerina, Andrew Kotz, Kara Podkaminer, and Brennan Borlaug. 2025. Hourly Load Profile Dataset for Electric Port Cargo Handling Equipment in the United States. Golden, CO: National Renewable Energy Laboratory. NREL/TP-5400-92141. https://www.nlr.gov/docs/fy25osti/92141.pdf

24 POWER TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION↗

NASA NTRSDate not supplied

Lunar Surface Cargo Offloading Concepts

A sustainable presence on the lunar surface will serve as a vital training ground and technology demonstration test site in preparation for future human missions to Mars. Robotic lunar surface campaigns will focus on the exploration of resources providing information on the availability and extraction of usable resources, such as oxygen and water, and prepare the surface for a sustained human presence. Landers, outfitted with sensor packages, will be used to conduct risk-reduction activities and aid in the development of technologies prior to the crewed lunar missions that drive the need to for a logistics supply chain that requires offloading. A series of landers will be required on other planetary surfaces to build up the capabilities, capitalizing on those resources, required for sustained human presence. In each of those landers will be cargo including ascent vehicles, habitats, supplies, science packages, spare parts, fluids commodities for fuel and life support, and others varying in volume and ranging from mass in hundreds of kilograms to an estimated 6-14 metric tons to support Human Landing Systems and surface logistics requirements. This paper will examine the challenge of offloading examples of these cargo elements from different categories of landers on the lunar surface using a variety of methodologies. Challenges on the lunar surface arise with the conditions present (thermal, lighting, communications, regolith consistency), the desire to minimize mass of all landed systems, the desire to perform much of the activities with limited to minimal human interaction, and the overall configuration of the landers that are responsible for landing the cargo.

Lunar↗

NASA NTRSDate not supplied

Lunar Surface Cargo Offloading Concepts

Lunar↗

NASA NTRS1972

The Economics of Air Cargo

The economic factors involved in air cargo operations and air cargo marketing development are discussed. Specific steps which are followed by various airports to reduce operating costs are described. The economics of cargo handling within an airline are analyzed with respect to: (1) paperwork costs, (2) terminal costs, (3) line haul costs, and (4) claims costs.

Kersey, J. W.↗

NASA NTRS1972

Air Cargo Marketing Development

The factors involved in developing a market for air cargo services are discussed. A comparison is made between the passenger traffic problems and those of cargo traffic. Emphasis is placed on distribution analyses which isolates total distribution cost, including logistical costs such as transportation, inventory, materials handling, packaging, and processing. Specific examples of methods for reducing air cargo costs are presented.

Kersey, J. W.↗

NASA NTRS1976

Cargo transportation by airships: A systems study

A systems engineering study of a lighter than air airship transportation system was conducted. The feasibility of the use of airships in hauling cargo was demonstrated. Social, legal, environmental and political factors were considered as well as the technical factors necessary to design an effective airship transportation system. In order to accomplish an effective airship transportation program two phases of implementation were recommended. Phase I would involve a fleet of rigid airships of 3.5 million cubic feet displacement capable of carrying 25 tons of cargo internal to the helium-filled gas bag. The Phase I fleet would demonstrate the economic and technical feasibility of modern-day airships while providing a training capability for the construction and operation of larger airships. The Phase II portion would be a fleet of rigid airships of 12 million cubic feet displacement capable of carrying a cargo of 100 tons a distance of 2,000 miles at a cruising speed of 60 mph. An economic analysis is given for a variety of missions for both Phase I and Phase II airships.

Huang, C. J.↗

NASA NTRS1976

Technical and Economic Assessment of Span-Distributed Loading Cargo Aircraft Concepts

A 700,000 kg (1,540,000-lb) aircraft with a cruise Mach number of 0.75 was found to be optimum for the specified mission parameters of a 272 155-kg (600,000-lb) payload, a 5560-km (3000-n.mi.) range, and an annual productivity of 113 billion revenue-ton km (67 billion revenue-ton n. mi.). The optimum 1990 technology level spanloader aircraft exhibited the minimum 15-year life-cycle costs, direct operating costs, and fuel consumption of all candidate versions. Parametric variations of wing sweep angle, thickness ratio, rows of cargo, and cargo density were investigated. The optimum aircraft had two parallel rows of 2.44 x 2.44-m (8 x 8-ft) containerized cargo with a density of 160 kg/cu m (10 lb/ft 3) carried throughout the entire 101-m (331-ft) span of the constant chord, 22-percent thick, supercritical wing. Additional containers or outsized equipment were carried in the 24.4-m (80-ft) long fuselage compartment preceding the wing. Six 284,000-N (64,000-lb) thrust engines were mounted beneath the 0.7-rad (40-deg) swept wing. Flight control was provided by a 36.6-m (120-ft) span canard surface mounted atop the forward fuselage, by rudders on the wingtip verticals and by outboard wing flaperons.

Johnston, W. M.↗

NASA NTRS1978

Technical and Economic Evaluation of Advanced Air Cargo Systems

The current air cargo environment and the relevance of advanced technology aircraft in enhancing the efficiency of the 1990 air cargo system are discussed. NASA preliminary design studies are shown to indicate significant potential gains in aircraft efficiency and operational economics for future freighter concepts. Required research and technology elements are outlined to develop a better base for evaluating advanced design concepts. Current studies of the market operation are reviewed which will develop design criteria for a future dedicated cargo transport. Design features desirable in an all-freighter design are reviewed. NASA-sponsored studies of large, distributed-load freighters are reviewed and these designs are compared to current wide-body aircraft. These concepts vary in gross takeoff weight from 0.5 Gg (one million lbs.) to 1.5 Gg (three million lbs.) and are found to exhibit economic advantages over conventional design concepts.

Whitehead, A. H., Jr.↗

NASA NTRS1977

Technical and economic evaluation of advanced air cargo system concepts

The paper reviews NASA air cargo market studies, reports on NASA and NASA-sponsored studies of advanced freighter concepts, and identifies the opportunities for the application of advanced technology. The air cargo market is studied to evaluate the timing for, and the potential market response to, advanced technology aircraft. The degree of elasticity in future air freight markets is also being investigated, since the demand for a new aircraft is most favorable in a price-sensitive environment. Aircraft design studies are considered with attention to mission and design requirements, incorporation of advanced technologies in transport aircraft, new cargo aircraft concepts, advanced freighter evaluation, and civil-military design commonality.

Whitehead, A. H., Jr.↗

NASA NTRS1980

Cargo Logistics Airlift Systems Study (CLASS). Volume 5: Summary

Findings and conclusions derived during the study of freighter aircraft requirements to the year 2008 are summarized. These results represent the stepping off point for the much needed coordinated planning efforts by government agencies, the airlines, the users, and the aircraft manufacturers. The methodology utilized in the investigations is shown. The analysis of the current system encompassed evaluations of the past and current cargo markets and on sight surveys of airport and cargo terminals. The findings that resulted provided the basis for formulating the case study procedures, developing the future scenario, and developing the future cargo market demand.

Burby, R. J.↗

NASA NTRS1980

Space Shuttle cargo processing at the Kennedy Space Center

This paper discusses the various activities involved in processing the two basic types of cargo being prepared for launch by the Space Transportation System. An overview will be presented describing the independent processing systems used to ready the Spacelabs and other horizontal cargo as well as upper stages and other vertical cargo. The interrelationship of these two types of preparations with the main line Space Shuttle test and checkout operations will be shown. In the explanation of each process, the ground support equipment and facilities of the Kennedy Space Center are described.

Rock, W. H.↗

NASA NTRS1989

Design of a spanloader cargo aircraft

The design features of an aircraft capable of fulfilling a long haul, high capacity cargo mission are described. This span-loading aircraft, or flying wing, is capable of carrying extremely large payloads and is expected to be in demand to replace the slow-moving cargo ships currently in use. The spanloader seeks to reduce empty weight by eliminating the aircraft fuselage. Disadvantages are the thickness of the cargo-containing wing, and resulting stability and control problems. The spanloader presented here has a small fuselage, low-aspect ratio wings, winglets, and uses six turbofan engines for propulsion. It will have a payload capacity of 300,000 pounds plus 30 first class passengers and 6 crew members. Its projected market is transportation of freight from Europe and the U.S.A. to countries in the Pacific Basin. Cost estimates support its economic feasibility.

Weisshaar, Terrence A.↗

NASA NTRS1991

Solar-electric-propulsion cargo vehicles for split/sprint Mars mission

In support of the proposed exploration of Mars, an unmanned cargo ferry SEMM1 (Solar Electric Mars Mission) was designed. The vehicle is based on solar electric propulsion, and required to transport a cargo of 61,000 kg. The trajectory is a combination of spirals; first, out from LEO, then around the sun, then spiral down to low Mars orbit. The spacecraft produces 3.03 MWe power using photovoltaic flexible blanket arrays. Ion thrusters using argon as a propellant were selected to drive the ship, providing about 60 Newtons of thrust in low Earth orbit. The configuration is based on two long truss beams to which the 24 individual, self-deployable, solar arrays are attached. The main body module supports the two beams and houses the computers, electrical, and control equipment. The thruster module is attached to the rear of the main body, and the cargo to the front.

Callaghan, Christopher E.↗

NASA NTRS1989

Design of a spanloader cargo aircraft

With a growing demand for fast international freight service, the slow-moving cargo ships currently in use will soon find a substantial portion of their clients looking elsewhere. One candidate for filling this expected gap in the freight market is a span-loading aircraft (or 'flying wing') capable of long-range operation with extremely large payloads. This report summarizes the design features of an aircraft capable of fulfilling a long-haul, high-capacity cargo mission. The spanloader seeks to gain advantage over conventional aircraft by eliminating the aircraft fuselage and thus reducing empty weight. The primary disadvantage of this configuration is that the cargo-containing wing tends to be thick, thus posing a challenge to the airfoil designer. It also suffers from stability and control problems not encountered by conventional aircraft. The result is an interesting, challenging exercise in unconventional design. The report that follows is a student written synopsis of an effort judged to be the best of eight designs developed during the year 1988-1989.

Source record↗

NASA NTRS1994

Design of a high capacity long range cargo aircraft

This report examines the design of a long range cargo transport to attempt to reduce ton-mile shipping costs and to stimulate the air cargo market. This design effort involves the usual issues but must also include consideration of: airport terminal facilities; cargo loading and unloading; and defeating the 'square-cube' law to design large structures. This report reviews the long range transport design problem and several solutions developed by senior student design teams at Purdue University. The results show that it will be difficult to build large transports unless the infrastructure is changed and unless the basic form of the airplane changes so that aerodynamic and structural efficiencies are employed.

Weisshaar, Terrence A.↗