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The electronic structure of wurtzite zinc oxide, investigated over the widest possible photon energy range by means of photoemission techniques, is described. Of particular interest among the results of the photoemission study are the location of the Zn 3rd core states, the width of the upper valence bands, and structure in the conduction-band and valence-band density of states.
A certain type of photon degradation effect has been observed experimentally in n(+)/p solar cells. It is found that this effect is caused by a recombination center, the formation of which requires the simultaneous presence of a lattice defect and a silver atom or complex of atoms. The center is electrically active in its equilibrium state; the energy level of the inactive center is located in the band gap, 0.37 eV below the conduction band. Conversion to an active recombination center can be brought about either by raising the minority carrier quasi-Fermi level to coincide with the position of the latent center level in the band gap or by the direct excitation of electrons from the valence band to the latent center level. Photon degradation can be prevented either by preventing the introduction of silver through the use of a clean diffusion system and clean initial material or by eliminating lattice damage through sufficient surface material removal prior to diffusion while at the same time restricting diffusion temperatures to 875 C or below.
The development of arrays which operate at wavelengths longer than 8 micrometers has opened up new possibilities for imaging and spectroscopy but offers challenges not present at shorter wavelengths. Impurity Band Conduction (IBC) or Blocked-Impurity-Band (BIB) detectors can meet these challenges and offer numerous advantages over standard photoconductors. We review some of the general operating principles of these devices and discuss the current state of technology. We then discuss the requirements placed on mid-infrared arrays by groundbased, airborne and spacebased astronomy.
Photomodulated reflection and optical absorption spectroscopies were used to measure the composition and hydrostatic pressure dependencies of interband optical transitions in ZnSe(1-x)Te(x) alloys. On the Te-rich side, the bandgap reduction and the reduction in the pressure dependence of the bandgap are well explained by the band anticrossing interaction between the ZnTe conduction band states and the Se localized state located at 2.85 eV above the valence band top of ZnTe. On the Se-rich side, an interaction between the degenerate Gamma valence bands of ZnSe and the localized Te state located at 0.1 eV above the valence band top of ZnSe is proposed to generate the bandgap reduction and the rapid increase of the spin-orbit splitting with increasing Te concentration. A linear interpolation between these two models accounts for the composition and pressure dependencies of the bandgap in the entire composition range.
Conduction band structure in n-type strontium titanate investigated by measuring oscillatory magnetoresistance in high magnetic fields
Hydrogenated amorphous silicon thin films were irradiated with 2.00 MeV helium ions using fluences ranging from 1E11 to 1E15 cm(-2). The films were characterized using photothermal deflection spectroscopy and photoconductivity measurements. The investigations show that the radiation introduces sub-band-gap states 1.35 eV below the conduction band and the states increase supralinearly with fluence. Photoconductivity measurements suggest the density of states above the Fermi energy is not changing drastically with fluence.
Indium phosphide (InP) solar cell efficiencies are limited by surface recombination. The effect of a wide bandgap, lattice-matched indium aluminum arsenide (In(0.52)Al(0.48)As) window layer on the performance of InP solar cells was investigated by using the numerical code PC-1D. The p(+)n InP solar cell performance improved significantly with the use of the window layer. No improvement was seen for the n(+)p InP cells. The cell results were explained by the band diagram of the heterostructure and the conduction band energy discontinuity. The calculated current voltage and internal quantum efficiency results clearly demonstrated that In(0.52)Al(0.48)As is a very promising candidate for a window layer material for p(+)n InP solar cells.
A careful analysis of an abrupt heterojunction consisting of two distinct semiconductors either intrinsic or extrinsic is presented. The calculations apply to a one-dimensional, nondegenerate structure. Taking into account all appropriate boundary conditions, it is shown that the intrinsic Fermi level shows a discontinuity at the interface between the two materials which leads to a discontinuity of the valence band edge equal to the difference in the band gap energies of the two materials. The conduction band edge stays continuous however. This result is independent of possible charged interface states and in sharp contrast to the Anderson model. The reasons for this discrepancy are discussed.
Indium phosphide (InP) solar cell efficiencies are limited by surface recombination. The effect of a wide-bandgap lattice-matched indium aluminum arsenide (In0.52Al0.48As) window layer on the performance of InP solar cells was investigated using a numerical code PC-1D. The p(+)n InP solar cell performance improves significantly with the use of a window layer. No improvement is seen for n(+)p InP cells. Cell results are explained by the band diagram of the heterostructure and the conduction-band energy discontinuity. The calculated I-V and internal quantum efficiency results clearly demonstrate that In0.52Al0.48As is a promising candidate as a window layer material for p(+)n InP solar cells.
Single crystals of n-type Bi2Se3 grown by the Bridgman technique are found to make excellent Hall effect magnetometers. Plots of Hall resistivity sub yx against magnetic field B to 10 tesla are linear to within 1 percent. Furthermore, the slope of the sub yx against B curve varies by about 1 percent in the region 1.1 to 35 K and by less than 20 percent in the region 1.1 to 300 K. Analysis of galvanomagnetic measurements indicate the samples have semimetallic densities of approximately 10 to the 25th power/cu cm, with two band conduction and near carrier compensation. Reflectivity measurements suggest a band gap of approximately 0.08 eV for the samples. The temperature dependence of mobility is also measured. A series of 50 direct immersions into liquid helium and liquid nitrogen demonstrate the reliability of Bi2Se3 magnetometers for cryogenic use.
The transmission resonance spectra and tunneling current-voltage characteristics for direct conduction band electrons in sawtooth GaAs-Al(x)Ga(1-x)As superlattices are computed. Only direct-gap interfaces are considered. It is found that sawtooth superlattices exhibit resonant tunneling similar to that in step superlattices, manifested by correlation of peaks and regions of negative differential resistance in the current-voltage curves with transmission resonances. The Stark shift of the resonances of step-barrier superlattices is a linear function of the field, whereas in sawtooth superlattices under strong fields the shift is not a simple function of the field. This follows from the different ways in which the two structures deform under uniform electric fields: the sawtooth deforms into a staircase, at which field strength all barriers to tunneling are eradicated. The step-barrier superlattice always presents some barrier to tunneling, no matter how high the electric field strength.
A diamond surface undergoes a transformation in its electronic structure by a vacuum anneal at approximately 900 C. The polished surface has no electronic states in the band gap, whereas the annealed surface has both occupied and unoccupied states in the and gap and exhibits some electrical conductivity. The effect of this transformation on the strength of the diamond metal interface was investigated by measuring the static friction force of an atomically clean meta sphere on a diamond flat in ultrahigh vacuum. It was found that low friction (weak bonding) is associated with the diamond surface devoid of gap states whereas high friction (strong bonding) is associated with the diamond surface with gap states. Exposure of the annealed surface to excited hydrogen also leads to weak bonding. The interfacial bond is discussed in terms of interaction of the metal conduction band electrons with the band gap states on the diamond surface. Effects of surface electrical conductivity on the interfacial bond are also be considered.
A mid-wavelength infrared (MWIR) barrier photodetector is capable of operating at higher temperature than the prevailing MWIR detectors based on InSb. The standard high-operating-temperature barrier infrared detector (HOT-BIRD) is made with an InAsSb infrared absorber that is lattice-matched to a GaSb substrate, and has a cutoff wavelength of approximately 4 microns. To increase the versatility and utility of the HOT-BIRD, it is implemented with IR absorber materials with customizable cutoff wavelengths. The HOT-BIRD can be built with the quaternary alloy GaInAsSb as the absorber, GaAlSbAs as the barrier, on a lattice-matching GaSb substrate. The cutoff wavelength of the GaInAsSb can be tailored by adjusting the alloy composition. To build a HOT-BIRD requires a matching pair of absorber and barrier materials with the following properties: (1) their valence band edges must be approximately the same to allow unimpeded hole flow, while their conduction band edges should have a large difference to form an electron barrier; and (2) the absorber and the barrier must be respectively lattice-matched and closely lattice-matched to the substrate to ensure high material quality and low defect density. To make a HOT-BIRD with cutoff wavelength shorter than 4 microns, a GaInAsSb quaternary alloy was used as the absorber, and a matching GaAlSbAs quaternary alloy as the barrier. By changing the alloy composition, the band gap of the quaternary alloy absorber can be continuously adjusted with cutoff wavelength ranging from 4 microns down to the short wavelength infrared (SWIR). By carefully choosing the alloy composition of the barrier, a HOT-BIRD structure can be formed. With this method, a HOT-BIRD can be made with continuously tailorable cutoff wavelengths from 4 microns down to the SWIR. The HOT-BIRD detector technology is suitable for making very-large-format MWIR/SWIR focal plane arrays that can be operated by passive cooling from low Earth orbit. High-operating temperature infrared with reduced cooling requirement would benefit space missions in reduction of size, weight, and power, and an increase in mission lifetime.
Results of a program to increase the short wavelength (less than 10 microns) detective quantum efficiency, eta/beta, of Si:As Impurity Band Conduction arrays are presented. The arrays are epitaxially grown Back-Illuminated Blocked (BIB) Impurity-Band (BIBIB) 10x50 detectors bonded to switched-FET multiplexers. It is shown that the 4.7 microns detective quantum efficiency increases proportionately with the thickness of the infrared active layer. A BIB array with a thick active layer, designed for low dark current, exhibits eta/beta = 7 to 9 percent at 4.7 microns for applied bias voltages between 3 and 5 V. The product of quantum efficiency and photoelectric gain, etaG, increases from 0.3 to 2.5 as the voltage increases from 3 to 5 V. Over this voltage range, the dark current increases from 8 to 120 e(-)s(-1) at a device temperature of 4.2 K and is under 70 e(-)s(-1) for all voltages at 2 K. Because of device gain, the effective dark current (equivalent photon rate) is less than 3 e(-)s(-1) under all operating conditions. The effective read noise (equivalent photon noise) is found to be less than 12 electrons under all operating conditions and for integration times between 0.05 and 100 seconds.
The present invention teaches an effective mechanism for enhancing thermoelectric performance through additional conductive bands. Using heavily doped p-PbTe materials as an example, a quantitative explanation is disclosed, as to why and how these additional bands affect the figure of merit. A high zT of approaching 2 at high temperatures makes these simple, likely more stable (than nanostructured materials) and Tl-free materials excellent for thermoelectric applications.
An interface photodischarge study of p-type GaAs metal-oxide-semiconductor (MOS) structures revealed the presence of deep interface states and shallow donors and acceptors which were previously observed in n-type GaAs MOS through sub-band-gap photoionization transitions. For higher photon energies, internal photoemission was observed, i.e., injection of electrons to the conduction band of the oxide from either the metal (Au) or from the GaAs valence band; the threshold energies were found to be 3.25 and 3.7 + or - 0.1 eV, respectively. The measured photoemission current exhibited a thermal activation energy of about 0.06 eV, which is consistent with a hopping mechanism of electron transport in the oxide.
Optical transmission measurements were performed on CdTe bulk single crystal. It was found that when a sliced and polished CdTe wafer was used, a white film started to develop when the sample was heated above 530 K and the sample became opaque. Therefore, a bulk crystal of CdTe was first grown in the window area by physical vapor transport; the optical transmission was then measured and from which the energy band gap was derived between 304 and 1067 K. The band gaps of CdTe can be fit well as a function of temperature using the Varshini expression: Eg (e V) = 1.5860 - 5.9117xl0(exp -4) T(sup 2)/(T + 160). Using the band gap data, the high temperature electron-hole equilibrium was calculated numerically by assuming the Kane's conduction band structure and a heavy-hole parabolic valance band. The calculated intrinsic carrier concentrations agree well with the experimental data reported previously. The calculated intrinsic Fermi levels between 270 and 1200 K were also presented.
Temperature dependence of current-voltage I-V characteristics and resistivity is studied in ferromagnetic PbS-EuS semiconductor tunnel structures grown on n-PbS (100) substrates. For the structures with a single (2-4 nm thick) ferromagnetic EuS electron barrier we observe strongly non-linear I-V characteristics with an effective tunneling barrier height of 0.3-0.7 eV. The experimentally observed non-monotonic temperature dependence of the (normal to the plane of the structure) electrical resistance of these structures is discussed in terms of the electron tunneling mechanism taking into account the temperature dependent shift of the band offsets at the EuS-PbS heterointerface as well as the exchange splitting of the electronic states at the bottom of the conduction band of EuS.