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DOE OSTI2024

Achieving Metallurgical Bonding in Aluminum/Steel Bimetallic Castings

Abstract Aluminum castings are increasingly being used in automotive powertrain and structural applications for vehicle lightweighting. Cast aluminum parts often need to be machined and joined to steel components in multi-material systems. Bimetallic components produced by casting aluminum over steel substrate are advantageous due to the elimination of machining and traditional dissimilar material joining processes. However, forming a strong metallurgical bonding during overcasting process has been challenging. In this paper, the effects of processing conditions such as substrate surface preparation, pre-heating temperature, melt conditions as well as casting design were studied by investigating the bimetallic interfaces for aluminum A319 casting alloy and a high alloy steel substrate in a sand-casting process. Zn and Al-based substrate coatings were evaluated. The experimental results suggest a metallurgical bond between aluminum and steel can be formed during the sand-casting process via high temperature diffusion with or without coatings. Al-based substrate coating prior to overcasting results in the formation of a continuous layer of intermetallics at the bimetallic interface, with large Al–Si–Fe intermetallics penetrating the cast aluminum.

Moodispaw, Michael P. (ORCID:0000000267635882)↗

DOE OSTI2023

Identifying limitations in screening high-throughput photocatalytic bimetallic nanoparticles with machine-learned hydrogen adsorptions

The Sabatier principle is of fundamental importance to computational catalyst discovery, saving researchers time and expense by predicting catalytic activity in silico at scale. However, as polycrystalline and nanoscale catalysts increasingly dominate industry, computational screening tools must be adapted to these uses. In this work, we demonstrate the effectiveness of computational adsorption energy screening in nanocatalysis by comparing a multisite adsorption energy prediction workflow against a large experimental dataset of hydrogen evolution activities over bimetallic nanoparticles. Comparing 16 million hydrogen adsorption energy predictions with the hydrogen evolution activity of 5300 experiments across 84 monometallic and bimetallic systems, we discover that favorable adsorption energies are a necessary condition for experimental activity, but other factors often determine trends in practice. Finally, about half of the bimetallic search space can be excluded from experimental screens using hydrogen adsorption predictions, but this method may become significantly more powerful when combined with other screening tools.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗

DOE OSTI2020

Bimetallics in a Nutshell: Complexes Supported by Chelating Naphthyridine-Based Ligands

Bimetallic motifs are a structural feature common to some of the most effective and synthetically useful catalysts known, including in the active sites of many metalloenzymes and on the surfaces of industrially relevant heterogeneous materials. However, the complexity of these systems often hampers detailed studies of their fundamental properties. To glean valuable mechanistic insight into how these catalysts function, this research group has prepared a family of dinucleating 1,8-naphthyridine ligands that bind two first-row transition metals in close proximity, originally designed to help mimic the proposed active site of metal oxide surfaces. Of the various bimetallic combinations examined, dicopper(I) is particularly versatile, as neutral bridging ligands adopt a variety of different binding modes depending on the configuration of frontier orbitals available to interact with the Cu centers. Organodicopper complexes are readily accessible, either through the traditional route of salt metathesis or via the activation of tetraarylborate anions through aryl group abstraction by a dicopper(I) unit. The resulting bridging aryl complexes engage in C-H bond activations, notably with terminal alkynes to afford bridging alkynyl species. In this work, the μ-hydrocarbyl complexes are surprisingly tolerant of water and elevated temperatures. This stability was leveraged to isolate a species that typically represents a fleeting intermediate in Cu-catalyzed azide-alkyne coupling (CuAAC); reaction of a bridging alkynyl complex with an organic azide afforded the first example of a well-defined, symmetrically bridged dicopper triazolide. This complex was shown to be an intermediate during CuAAC, providing support for a proposed bimetallic mechanism. These platforms are not limited to formally low oxidation states; chemical oxidation of the hydrocarbyl complexes cleanly results in formation of mixed valence Cu I Cu II complexes with varying degrees of distortion in both the bridging moiety and the dicopper core. Higher oxidation states, e.g. , dicopper(II), are easily accessed via oxidation of a dicopper(I) compound with air to give a Cu II 2 (μ-OH) 2 complex. Reduction of this compound with silanes resulted in the unexpected formation of pentametallic copper(I) dihydride clusters or trimetallic monohydride complexes, depending on the nature of the silane. Finally, development of an unsymmetrical naphthyridine ligand with mixed donor side-arms enables selective synthesis of an isostructural series of six heterobimetallic complexes, demonstrating the power of ligand design in the preparation of heterometallic assemblies.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗

DOE OSTI2025

Fundamental Interactions of Bimetallic Cu x Pd y ( x + y = 4) Clusters Supported on the α-WC(0001) Surface and Their Performance for CO 2 Adsorption and Dissociation

The tungsten carbide α-WC(0001) surface, an active system for the activation of H 2 and important hydrogenation processes involving unsaturated hydrocarbons, can serve as a support of bimetallic clusters to produce materials with unique catalytic properties, opening routes for a wide range of technical applications. In particular, Cu x Pd y clusters are of particular interest because they combine metals with different properties. A stochastic method was applied to obtain the geometry of Cu x Pd y (x + y = 4) bare clusters, evaluating thousands of possibilities to obtain stable structures, yielding one isomer for Cu 4 , Cu 2 Pd 2 , Cu 1 Pd 3 , and Pd 4 and two isomers for Cu 3 Pd 1 . These clusters were supported on C and W terminations of the tungsten carbide (0001) surface, exploring all of the binding possibilities. The adsorption energies on the C and W terminations are in the ranges from −2.51 to −3.02 eV and from −2.26 to −3.30 eV, respectively. The strongest and weakest binding was seen for monometallic Cu 4 and Pd 4 clusters on both C and W terminations, while the Cu-Pd bimetallics have intermediate adsorption energies but lack a clear trend in terms of composition. The location of Cu x Pd y clusters over the (0001) surface induces a decrease in the work function relative to the pristine surface, while the cluster-surface Bader charge transfer and variations in the partial density of states point to changes in the electronic structure of the carbide atoms upon binding of the metallic clusters. The d-band center of the Cu x Pd y deposited on WC(0001) indicates an intermediate reactivity among Cu(111) and Pd(111) surfaces, modulating the reactivity with small numbers of Cu and Pd atoms, i.e., atom economy in catalyst design. The likelihood of existence of the most stable Cu x Pd y (x + y = 4) clusters in the temperature range of 298-400 K is 100%. The composite Cu x Pd y /α-WC(0001) (x + y = 4), is a nontrivial system since 22 isomers are needed to completely describe its structural properties. Among the isomers, seven structures are necessary to represent Cu 3 Pd 1 /α-WC(0001), five for Pd 4 /α-WC(0001), two for Cu 4 /α-WC(0001), and four for Cu 2 Pd 2 /α-WC(0001) and Cu 1 Pd 3 /α-WC(0001). The large number of cluster isomers supported on the tungsten carbide surface opens the door for several applications in the heterogeneous catalysis of the Cu x Pd y /α-WC(0001) composite, with the possibility of modulating the geometric, electronic, and chemical properties according to a desired application. Test studies for the adsorption of CO 2 indicate that the Cu x Pd y /α-WC(0001) composites are highly active for the adsorption and decomposition of the molecule, with bimetallic and admetal-carbide interactions playing a key role in the binding performance. In conclusion, this high activity indicates that these systems should be useful as catalysts for the conversion of CO 2 to oxygenates or light alkanes.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗

DOE OSTI2025

Metal–Metal Bonding Influences Hydride Reactivity in [Sn–Rh] 3+ and [Sn–Ni] 2+ Bimetallics

Heavier group 14 metal hydrides serve as key intermediates in catalytic transformations, such as hydroboration. Regenerating such intermediates via a clean hydride source like dihydrogen could provide catalytic processes with a more economical alternative to, e.g., silanes and hydridoborane reagents. Herein, we report our efforts toward this goal using a [Sn–Rh] 3+ bimetallic system with the formal Rh I center acting as a potential dihydrogen activator. Targeting the introduction of a hydride ligand to the bimetallic core, our reactivity studies have revealed a preference for the hydride ligand to be bound to the Rh center, instead of the Sn center. Finally, examination of the electronic structures of these complexes via theoretical and experimental methods has revealed the electron acceptor nature of the Rh center within the bimetallic core and offers an explanation for the localization of the hydride between metal centers.

anions↗

DOE OSTI2020

Ultrafast relaxation dynamics in bimetallic plasmonic catalysts

Combining a plasmonic metal, such as gold, with other popular catalysts, such as Ni or Pt, can extend its benefits to many energy-extensive reactions catalyzed by those metals. The efficiency of a plasmon-enhanced catalytic reaction is mainly determined by the light absorption cross section and the photoexcited charge carrier relaxation dynamics of the nanoparticles. Here we have investigated the charge carrier relaxation dynamics of gold/nickel (Au/Ni) and gold/platinum (Au/Pt) bimetallic nanoparticles. We found that the addition of Ni or Pt to gold can reduce light absorption in gold nanoparticles. However, electron–phonon coupling rates of Au/Ni and Au/Pt nanoparticles are significantly faster than that of pure Au nanoparticles. This is due to the fact that both Ni and Pt possess significantly larger electron–phonon coupling constants and higher densities of states near the Fermi level in comparison with Au. Additionally, the phonon–phonon coupling rate of bimetallic Au/Pt and Au/Ni nanoparticles was significantly different from that of pure gold nanoparticles, due to the acoustic impedance mismatch at the nanoparticle/substrate interface. Our findings provide important insights into the rational design of bimetallic plasmonic catalysts.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗

DOE OSTI2020

Energetic decomposition yields efficient bimetallic Cu MOF-derived catalysts

Metal–organic frameworks (MOFs) have recently emerged as efficient self-sacrificial templates to fabricate porous carbon-supported metal nanoparticles (NPs). Due to observed increased activity, catalysts containing bimetallic NPs represent an active frontier for heterogeneous catalyst development. A strategy to synthesize active catalysts with highly dispersed bimetallic metal/metal oxides within a porous carbon matrix via rapid MOF decomposition using dopants is presented in this paper. A 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene (TNT) additive enhances the rapid thermolysis of the metal-doped Cu-based MOFs to minimize particle aggregation. Catalyst characterization reveals that a secondary metal increases dispersion of both metals over the carbon composite support. The catalyst preparation method influences both the metal particle size and oxidation state. Catalytic performance shows increased rates for 4-nitrophenol reduction even with <1 wt% of added secondary metal. Among the synthesized catalysts, the Ni–CuO@C bimetallic catalyst exhibits outstanding activity. This synthetic strategy is useful for creating highly efficient, robust, non-noble metal catalysts for development of sustainable chemical processes.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗

DOE OSTI2022

Mapping the effects of physical and chemical reduction parameters on local atomic distributions within bimetallic nanoparticles

Bimetallic nanoparticles prove advantageous over their monometallic counterparts due to the tunable, hybrid properties that result from combining different atomic species in a controlled way. The favorable optical and catalytic properties resulting from AgAu nanoparticle formation have been widely attributed to the existence of Ag–Au bonds, the maximization of which assumes the formation of a homogeneous alloy. Despite the importance of atomic scale structure in these systems, synthetic studies are typically not paired with structural characterization at the atomic scale. Herein, a comprehensive synthetic exploration of physical and chemical reduction parameters of resulting nanoparticle products is complemented with thorough X-ray characterization to probe how these parameters affect atomic scale alloy distributions within AgAu nanoparticles. Presented evidence shows Ag is substantially underincorporated into nanoparticle constructs compared with solution Ag : Au ratios regardless of precursor :reductant ratio or volume of reductant added. Both Ag and Au exhibit significant local clustering, with Ag distributed preferentially towards the nanoparticle surface. Most significantly, the results of this investigation suggest that reduction parameters alone can affect the local alloy distributions and homogeneity within bimetallic nanoparticles, even when the ratio of metallic precursors remains constant. Overall, this investigation presents the ability to control alloy distributions using kinetics and provides new considerations for optimizing synthetic methods to produce functional bimetallic nanoparticles.

77 NANOSCIENCE AND NANOTECHNOLOGY↗

DOE OSTI2024

Processing, Microstructure, and Properties of Bimetallic Steel-Ni Alloy Powder HIP

This work explores technical feasibility in hot isostatic pressing (HIP) manufacturing of an integral bimetallic component using steel and Ni alloy powder for supercritical carbon dioxide (sCO2) turbomachinery. Lab-scale bimetallic HIP specimens using HAYNES® 282® and SS316L or SS415 powder are investigated in powder configuration, heat treatment, microstructure, and tensile properties up to 400 °C. Interdiffusion profiles at dissimilar alloy interfaces caused by HIP cycle is predicted by DICTRA simulations and validated by electron probe microanalysis (EPMA). The interdiffusion distance of most elements is around 100 μm, while C and N have a higher interdiffusion distance. Dense distribution of Ti-rich carbonitrides and alumina particles are found to decorate prior particle boundaries near joining interface on the 282 side, affecting tensile strength across interface as well as tensile failure location. A higher amount of excessive carbonitride formation near interface is observed in SS316L/282 than in SS415/282, which is consistent with the predicted greater degree of interdiffusion effect in SS316L/282. Typical HAYNES® 282® heat treatment condition is applicable to 282/SS316L and 282/SS415 combinations, resulting in a higher strength than cast CF8M and CA6NM. A pilot-scale bimetallic SS415/282 pipe is then demonstrated to show the promise of scaleup.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗

NASA NTRS2019

Additive Manufacturing and Hot-Fire Testing of Bimetallic GRCop-84 and C-18150 Channel-Cooled Combustion Chambers Using Powder Bed Fusion and Inconel 625 Hybrid Directed Energy Deposition

Additive manufacturing (AM) is an advanced fabrication technique that is demonstrating tremendous potential to reduce fabrication lead times and costs for liquid rocket engine components. The additive manufacturing technology lends itself to fabricate components with complex features such as internal coolant channels in combustion chambers that would otherwise require complex manufacturing operations. A requirement for high performance engines is to use high conductivity, high strength materials such as copper-alloys for combustion chamber liners to provide adequate wall temperatures and meet subsequent structural margins. A further requirement of this configuration is to minimize weight by defining and fabricating material in discrete locations as required. NASA and Industry partner, Virgin Orbit, have been working to advance these technologies through development of bimetallic additive manufacturing techniques under a public-private partnership through NASA’s Announcement of Collaborative Opportunity (ACO). This partnership is advancing a bimetallic hybrid additively manufactured combustion chamber that integrates Powder Bed Fusion (PBF), specifically Selective Laser Melting (SLM), and Directed Energy Deposition (DED) blown powder techniques to optimize the chamber materials and subsequent assembly. The SLM process is being developed for the combustion chamber liner to use copper-alloys GRCop-84 (Copper-Chrome-Niobium) or C-18150 (Copper-Chrome-Zirconium). The hybrid DED blown powder technology is used to apply an integrated structural jacket and manifolds using an Inconel 625 superalloy on the outer surface of the SLM copper liner. The hybrid DED technology being used on this program is a DMG Mori Seiki AM machining center which integrates the DED blown powder with an integral subtractive (traditional) machining to minimize overall setups. A series of chambers were fabricated using these techniques with GRCop-84/Inconel 625 and C-18150/Inconel and hot-fire tested at NASA Marshall Space Flight Center (MSFC) in LOX/Kerosene (RP-1). This paper describes the process development to integrate these AM technologies into an integrated bimetallic assembly, the design of the chamber, results from hot-fire testing, and further development.

Gradl, Paul R.↗

NASA NTRS2019

Additive Manufacturing and Hot-fire Testing of Bimetallic GRCop-84 and C-18150 Channel-Cooled Combustion Chambers using Powder Bed Fusion and Inconel 625 Hybrid Directed Energy Deposition

Gradl, Paul↗

DOE OSTI2025

Enhancing carbon nanotube production from carbon dioxide and ethane using bimetallic catalysts

Converting CO 2 into carbon nanotubes (CNTs) offers a promising way for CO 2 utilization and sequestration, potentially mitigating environmental impacts from anthropogenic emissions. This study reports that bimetallic CoFe catalysts can increase CNT production from the reaction of CO 2 and C 2 H 6 by an order of magnitude compared to their monometallic counterparts. The active sites and CNT morphologies are composition-dependent: Co-rich catalysts (Co/Fe ratio ≥ 5) form stable face-centered cubic (fcc) CoFe alloys, producing cylindrical CNTs; Fe-containing catalysts (Co/Fe ≤ 2) favor body-centered cubic (bcc) CoFe alloy upon reduction, which transforms into carbides, resulting in bamboo-like CNTs. Experimental evidence and DFT calculations reveal that adjacent Fe and Co atoms modulate CO and C x H y adsorption, regulating CNT production pathways through the CO Boudouard reaction and C 2 H 6 decomposition. In conclusion, these results highlight the dual benefits of bimetallic catalysts in enhancing CNT yield and controlling CNT morphology through adjustment of catalyst compositions.

58 GEOSCIENCES↗

DOE OSTI2020

Structure and activity of supported bimetallic NiPd nanoparticles: influence of preparation method on CO 2 reduction

Here, bimetallic Ni-Pd and monometallic reference catalysts were prepared by decomposing organometallic precursors, Ni(cod) 2 and Pd 2 (dba) 3 , leading to nanoparticles with sizes ranging from 3 to 6 nm. Two different synthesis procedures were followed: i) solution synthesis using capping ligand (hexadecylamine) followed by impregnation of pre-formed nanoparticles on SiO 2 , called Sol-immobilization (SI); and 2) direct precursor decomposition onto SiO 2 , without stabilizer, called Direct Decomposition (DD). Samples prepared by SI procedure are alloyed bimetallic nanoparticles, whereas samples obtained by DD one show phase segregation. Interestingly, DD samples show better activity for CO 2 hydrogenation into CO (reverse water-gas shift reaction - RWGS) than SI ones. The best compromise between activity for CO 2 activation (at lower temperature) and CO selectivity was achieved with Ni DD and NiPd DD catalysts. Moreover, the addition of palladium increased the concentration of surface undercoordinated sites, which chemisorb CO weakly, thus improving activity and selectivity, in opposition to other samples that chemisorb CO strongly, in multiband configuration. In the presence of Pd, different decomposition rates drive the formation of smaller and more active Ni clusters. The knowledge acquired here on the influence of synthesis conditions on the catalytic properties of Ni-Pd catalysts should guide us to better catalysts for CO 2 transformations into valuable products.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗

DOE OSTI2024

Investigating stainless steel/aluminum bimetallic structures fabricated by cold metal transfer (CMT)-based wire-arc directed energy deposition

Here, this study investigated the process of fabricating a bimetallic structure of 316L stainless steel (SS) and 4043 aluminum (Al) using wire-arc directed energy deposition (DED) based on the cold metal transfer (CMT) process. The impact of heat input on the fabricated structure’s geometry, porosity, and microstructures at the interface, with a specific emphasis on the intermetallic compound (IMC) formation, and the subsequent impact on the joint strength of the structure, were studied. The IMC layer at the interface was predominantly comprised of FeAl 2 Si. For the various heat input conditions studied, the IMC layer's thickness varied from 5 µm to 18 µm. The tensile strength reached up to approximately 130 MPa, which is among the highest reported in the literature for steel/Al bimetallic structures. The specimens fabricated with high heat input conditions had a thicker IMC layer at the steel/Al interface, resulting in a more brittle interface and degradation of the mechanical properties.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗

DOE OSTI2023

CO 2 -mediated oxidative dehydrogenation of propane enabled by Pt-based bimetallic catalysts

The greenhouse gas CO 2 is a promising soft oxidant for the oxidative dehydrogenation of light alkanes. However, the occurrence of side reactions including cracking, hydrogenolysis, and reforming results in lower olefin yields compared with direct dehydrogenation. Here, we report that Pt-M (M = Sn/In/Zn) bimetallic catalysts on non-redox-active silica support can break the equilibrium limit of direct propane dehydrogenation using CO 2 as a co-reactant to consume the hydrogen formed in propane dehydrogenation. Unlike the commonly postulated direct CO 2 -assisted dehydrogenation mechanism, we confirm that CO 2 -oxidative dehydrogenation of propane (ODHP) proceeds in two tandem steps on these bimetallic catalysts, i.e., propane dehydrogenation and reverse water-gas shift, with the latter being the rate-determining step. In situ X-ray absorption studies and density functional theory calculations suggest that the Pt m M n -MO x (e.g., Pt 3 Sn-SnO x ) interfaces are likely active sites.

03 NATURAL GAS↗

DOE OSTI2020

Computational study of the adsorption of bimetallic clusters on alumina substrate

We performed computational investigation of the adsorption of bimetallic Pd 3 M 2 (where M changes from Ag, Au, Co, Cu, Mn, Ni, Pt, and Ru) cluster on the hydroxylated alumina surface. Previously, it was shown that small silver cluster can control the rate of discharge at the cathode of lithium-oxygen battery. The gap near the fermi energy was shown to control the oxygen reduction, an important reaction for LiO 2 formation. Controlling the gap would ultimately control the rate of LiO 2 formation. One can vary the size of the cluster to vary the gap, however, this "knob" provides limited variance in the gap. Alloying, in combination with size variation offer a much wider control of the gap, hence the LiO 2 formation. Using Density Functional Theory (DFT), we determined the most stable geometry of the bimetallic clusters Pd 3 M 2 and calculated the binding energies of these clusters on the alumina substrate which ranges from 0.2 eV to 0.25 eV depending upon the composition of the alloy-cluster, its orientation and the adsorption site. We also find that Pd atoms bind strongly with the substrate oxygen atoms with an average short bond-length of about 2.2 angstrom. We explored how the gap at the Fermi level of the system varies as a function of elemental composition and the calculated gap ranges from 0 meV to 90 meV. Charges distribution using Bader analysis was also performed to probe how charges are transferred between the cluster and the substrate. These preliminary results will open the door for more systematic studies of alloy clusters of different size and stoichiometry for Li-O 2 battery cathode design.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗

DOE OSTI2024

In Situ TEM for Structural and Chemical Evolutions of Bimetallic Pt–Ni Nanoparticles at Elevated Temperatures: Implications for Heterogeneous Catalysis

Platinum-based bimetallic nanoparticles (NPs) are of great interest for their applications in catalysis. The catalytic properties of these NPs are significantly dependent on their morphology, structure, and composition, whose response to thermal input remains challenging to be fully understood. This study investigates the thermally induced structural and chemical evolutions of single-crystalline Pt-Ni NPs using in situ transmission electron microscopy. The observed morphological evolution includes the facet development from a truncated octahedron to a spherical-like isotropic shape, followed by the formation of pancake-like ellipsoid shape at high temperatures due to surface atom migration and interfacial wetting enabled by the particle-substrate interaction. Comparative investigations by in situ scanning transmission electron microscopy with energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy mapping elucidate that the solid-solution compositional configuration can be retained over a large temperature range, while core-shell NPs undergo irreversible solid-solution transitions through chemical homogenization at elevated temperatures. Finally, these findings elucidate the effect of thermal input on structural evolution and compositional redistribution of Pt-Ni bimetallic NPs, offering valuable insights into the design of heterogeneous catalysts.

25 ENERGY STORAGE↗

DOE OSTI2026

Nanocluster Rearrangement Forms a Family of Ordered Cerium–Titanium Bimetallic Metal–Organic Frameworks with Three Different Nodes, Nanocavities, and Thermal Stabilities

Metal–organic frameworks (MOFs) provide a versatile platform for incorporating multiple metal ions within a single crystalline framework, yet achieving spatial and stoichiometric order in heterometallic nodes remains a synthetic challenge. Building on our previously reported, highly thermally stable Ce/Ti bimetallic MOF NU-3000, we identified and isolated two additional crystalline phases, NU-2998 and NU-2999, that arise from the same Ce/Ti nanocluster precursor under modified solvothermal conditions. Systematic variation of reaction temperature, time, solvent ratio, and modulator concentration directs the assembly of these distinct frameworks. Structural analysis and comprehensive characterization studies reveal that these MOFs each feature an unreported nodal geometry with nanocavities of different sizes. NU-2998 even adopts an unreported topology, denoted nui , that features an elongated pore spanning 4 nm. Together, these findings establish a synthesis route that starts with a nanocluster and ends with a set of bimetallic MOFs, offering a glimpse into the pathway-dependent assembly of multimetallic porous materials. Finally, we evaluated the thermal stability of each additional analogue and compared them to NU-3000, providing further insight into material stability. NU-3000 maintained the highest thermal stability and was evaluated as a catalyst for CO oxidation at elevated temperatures.

bimetallic MOFs↗