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Results for “Accelerator Design, Technology, and Operations”

Search indexed NASA NTRS and DOE OSTI research on propulsion, heat transfer, battery materials and energy systems. Follow report and document links to the original sources.

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At least 55 records · Page 3
All sourcesNASA NTRSDOE OSTI
DOE OSTI2026

Efficient continuous-wave normal conducting accelerator for industrial applications

A normal conducting, high power, high efficiency copper linear accelerator prototype is being developed for industrial applications. The system will be powered by low-cost high-efficiency magnetron RF sources and will use a gridded thermionic cathode electron gun. Leveraging the significant accelerator expertise at JLab and industry partners, these technologies will be combined to deliver high-power (>100 kW) electron beams with energies of 1 MeV or higher that are cost-effective to produce and operate. The design is modular such that energy and power can be increased by adding additional sections as required. The status of the design, prototype fabrication and plans for a beam demonstration at JLab are described.

Accelerator Physics↗
NASA NTRS2014

Design and Preliminary Performance Testing of Electronegative Gas Plasma Thruster

In classical gridded electrostatic ion thrusters, positively charged ions are generated from a plasma discharge of noble gas propellant and accelerated to provide thrust. To maintain overall charge balance on the propulsion system, a separate electron source is required to neutralize the ion beam as it exits the thruster. However, if high-electronegativity propellant gases (e.g., sulfur hexafluoride) are instead used, a plasma discharge can result consisting of both positively and negatively charged ions. Extracting such electronegative plasma species for thrust generation (e.g., with time-varying, bipolar ion optics) would eliminate the need for a separate neutralizer cathode subsystem. In addition for thrusters utilizing a RF plasma discharge, further simplification of the ion thruster power system may be possible by also using the RF power supply to bias the ion optics. Recently, the PEGASES (Plasma propulsion with Electronegative gases) thruster prototype successfully demonstrated proof-of-concept operations in alternatively accelerating positively and negatively charged ions from a RF discharge of a mixture of argon and sulfur hexafluoride.i In collaboration with NASA Marshall Space Flight Center (MSFC), the Georgia Institute of Technology High-Power Electric Propulsion Laboratory (HPEPL) is applying the lessons learned from PEGASES design and testing to develop a new thruster prototype. This prototype will incorporate design improvements and undergo gridless operational testing and diagnostics checkout at HPEPL in April 2014. Performance mapping with ion optics will be conducted at NASA MSFC starting in May 2014. The proposed paper discusses the design and preliminary performance testing of this electronegative gas plasma thruster prototype.

Liu, Thomas M.↗
DOE OSTI2025

First Results from a Nb3Sn-Coated 1.5-Cell 650 MHz SRF Cavity for Cryogen-Free Industrial Accelerators

First Results from a Nb3Sn-Coated 1.5-Cell 650 MHz SRF Cavity for Cryogen-Free Industrial Accelerators ABSTRACT = Fermilab is advancing the development of a compact, high-power electron beam accelerator using superconducting radio frequency (SRF) technology as a non-radioactive alternative to traditional radiological sources. The current design targets continuous-wave (CW) operation at \SI{1.6}{MeV} and \SI{20}{kW}. To ensure suitability for industrial environments, the system is being designed for cryogen-free operation, driving the adoption of a novel Nb$_3$Sn-coated 1.5-cell SRF cavity operating at \SI{650}{MHz}. This contribution reports on the fabrication, surface preparation, and Nb$_3$Sn coating process of the cavity, as well as first results from vertical test stand (VTS) measurements performed in a liquid helium bath. These initial tests mark a key milestone toward demonstrating the viability of conduction-cooled Nb$_3$Sn SRF cavities for industrial-scale deployment.

Tagdulang, N. [Fermilab]↗
DOE OSTI2025

First Results from A $Nb_3Sn$-Coated 1.5-Cell 650MHZ SRF Cavity for Cryogen-Free Industrial Accelerators

Fermilab is advancing the development of a compact, high-power electron beam accelerator using superconducting radio frequency (SRF) technology as a non-radioactive alternative to traditional radiological sources. The current design targets continuous-wave (CW) operation at \SI{1.6}{MeV} and \SI{20}{kW}. To ensure suitability for industrial environments, the system is being designed for cryogen-free operation, driving the adoption of a novel Nb$_3$Sn-coated 1.5-cell SRF cavity operating at \SI{650}{MHz}. This contribution reports on the fabrication, surface preparation, and Nb$_3$Sn coating process of the cavity, as well as first results from vertical test stand (VTS) measurements performed in a liquid helium bath. These initial tests mark a key milestone toward demonstrating the viability of conduction-cooled Nb$_3$Sn SRF cavities for industrial-scale deployment.

Tagdulang, Nikki Diala [Fermilab]↗
NASA NTRS2000

Magnetically Actuated Propellant Orientation, Controlling Fluids in a Low-Gravity Environment

Cryogenic fluid management (CFM) is a technology area common to virtually every space transportation propulsion concept envisioned. Storage, supply, transfer and handling of sub-critical cryogenic fluids are basic capabilities that have long been needed by multiple programs and the need is expected to continue in the future. The use of magnetic fields provides another method, which could replace or augment current/traditional approaches, potentially simplifying vehicle operational constraints. The magnetically actuated propellant orientation (MAPO) program effort focused on the use of magnetic fields to control fluid motion as it relates to positioning (i.e. orientation and acquisition) of a paramagnetic substance such as LO2. Current CFM state- of-the-art systems used to control and acquire propellant in low gravity environments rely on liquid surface tension devices which employ vanes, fine screen mesh channels and baskets. These devices trap and direct propellant to areas where it's needed and have been used routinely with storable (non-cryogenic) propellants. However, almost no data exists r,egarding their operation in cryogenics and the use of such devices confronts designers with a multitude of significant technology issues. Typical problems include a sensitivity to screen dry out (due to thermal loads and pressurant gas) and momentary adverse accelerations (generated from either internal or external sources). Any of these problems can potentially cause the acquisition systems to ingest or develop vapor and fail. The use of lightweight high field strength magnets may offer a valuable means of augmenting traditional systems potentially mitigating or at least easing operational requirements. Two potential uses of magnetic fields include: 1) strategically positioning magnets to keep vent ports clear of liquid (enabling low G vented fill operations), and 2) placing magnets in the center or around the walls of the tank to create an insulating vapor pocket (between the liquid and the tank wall) which could effectively lower heat transfer to the liquid (enabling increased storage time).

Martin, James J.↗
NASA NTRS1999

Utilizing Advanced Vibration Isolation Technology to Enable Microgravity Science Operations

Microgravity scientific research is performed in space to determine the effects of gravity upon experiments. Until recently, experiments had to accept the environment aboard various carriers: reduced-gravity aircraft, sub-orbital payloads, Space Shuttle, and Mir. If the environment is unacceptable, then most scientists would rather not expend the resources without the assurance of true microgravity conditions. This is currently the case on the International Space Station, because the ambient acceleration environment will exceed desirable levels. For this reason, the g-LIMIT (Glovebox Integrated Microgravity Isolation Technology) system is currently being developed to provide a quiescent acceleration environment for scientific operations. This sub-rack isolation system will provide a generic interface for a variety of experiments for the Microgravity Science Glovebox. This paper describes the motivation for developing of the g-LIMIT system, presents the design concept and details some of the advanced technologies utilized in the g-LIMIT flight design.

Alhorn, Dean Carl↗
DOE OSTI2024

Multi-beam operation of LANSCE accelerator facility

The Los Alamos Neutron Science Center (LANSCE) accelerator facility has been in operation for 50 years performing important scientific support for national security. The unique feature of the LANSCE accelerator facility is multi-beam operation, delivering beams to five experimental areas. The near-term plans are to replace obsolete and almost end-of-life systems of the LANSCE linear accelerator with a modern 100-MeV Front End with significant improvement in beam quality. This paper summarizes experimental results obtained during the operation of the LANSCE accelerator facility and considers plans to expand the performance of the accelerator for near- and long-term operations.

47 OTHER INSTRUMENTATION↗
DOE OSTI2026

A Survey on the Expanding Scope and Interdisciplinary Opportunities for Processing-in-Memory Techniques

Processing-in-Memory (PIM) is emerging as a practical path to overcome the limitations of traditional von Neumann architectures. At its core, PIM systems implement computing primitives such as logic operations and multiply-accumulate acceleration through compute-in-memory, near-memory processing, or hybrid designs. The role of memory cells varies widely across technologies, acting as inputs, outputs, or analog accumulators through bit-lines and sense amplifiers. This diversity creates trade-offs in precision, bandwidth, latency, and programmability, making it difficult to build a unified understanding on the progress of the field. In this survey, we organize recent advances of PIM into three areas. First, we discuss the progress on the architectural optimizations of PIM and its integration with both DRAM and emerging non-volatile memories. Second, we examine how PIM is being used to accelerate key computing domains, including generative AI workloads and high-performance kernels, along with new approaches. Third, we highlight the growing adoption of PIM in computational sciences, where it is being applied to solve interdisciplinary problems such as genome analysis, mRNA quantification, mass spectrometry, quantum circuit simulation, wave modeling, and secure computation. Finally, we synthesize the major challenges that continue to slow PIM adoption, including manufacturing constraints, power delivery, thermal reliability, data consistency, runtime and memory-management coordination, and the difficulty of building portable software abstractions without sacrificing commercial viability. This work provides an updated, structured perspective on PIM’s potential across computing and computational sciences and the barriers that must be solved for it to reach its full impact.

Asifuzzaman, Kazi [Oak Ridge National Laboratory (↗
NASA NTRS2020

NASA’s Human Landing System: The Strategy for the 2024 Mission and Future Sustainability

In response to the 2018 White House Space Policy Directive- sustainable lunar exploration, and to the Vice President’s March 2019 direction to do so by 2024, NASA is working to establish humanity's presence on and around the Moon by: 1) sending payloads to its surface, 2) assembling the Gateway outpost in orbit and 3) demonstrating the first human lunar landings since 1972. NASA’s Artemis program is implementing a multi-faceted and coordinated agency-wide approach with a focus on the lunar South Pole. The Artemis missions will demonstrate new technologies, capabilities and business approaches needed for future exploration, including Mars. Assessing options to accelerate development of required systems, NASA is utilizing public-private engagements through the Human Exploration and Operations (HEO) Mission Directorate’s NextSTEP Broad Agency Announcements. The design, development and demonstration of the Human Landing System (HLS) is expected to be led by commercial partners. Utilizing efforts across mission directorates, the Artemis effort will benefit from programs from the Science Mission Directorate (SMD) and Space Technology Mission Directorate (STMD). SMD’s Commercial Lunar Payload Services (CLPS) initiative will procure commercial robotic lunar delivery services and the development of science instruments and technology demonstration payloads. The Space Technology Mission Directorate (STMD) portfolio of technology advancements relative to HLS include lunar lander components and technologies for pointing, navigation and tracking, fuel storage and transfer, autonomy and mobility, communications, propulsion and power. In addition to describing the objectives and requirements of the 2024 Artemis mission, this paper will present NASA’s approach to accessing the lunar surface with an affordable human-rated landing system, current status and the role o a sustainable lunar presence.

Chavers, Greg↗
DOE OSTI2024

Physics Design of Proton/Ion SRF Accelerators

Superconducting Radio Frequency (SRF) technology has become foundation of the modern high energy particle accelerators. The technology enables a higher accelerating field with minimal power dissipation and a stronger compact magnetic field. These advancements have broadened the operational horizon of the particle accelerators making a higher duty factor and Continuous Wave (CW) beam operations both feasible and economically viable. The intensity frontier research founded on generation of intense beam of exotic particles including but not limited to neutrinos, muons, kaons and neutrons as well as practical applications involving transmutation of nuclear reactor waste, rare isotopes generation, sub-critical nuclear power generation etc. could be accomplished efficiently only by using superconducting proton/ions particle accelerators. As a result, many newly constructed or under construction high energy accelerator facilities around the world such as Proton Improvement Plan-II (PIP-II) at Fermilab, FRIB at MSU, ESS at Sweden are utilizing SRF accelerators. This talk presents the design philosophy of SRF proton/ion particle accelerator, with a focus on optimizing its performance while addressing physics and operational challenges including the fault scenarios, machine availability and preservation of crucial beam parameters.

Saini, Arun↗
NASA NTRS1992

Habitat automation

A habitat, on either the surface of the Moon or Mars, will be designed and built with the proven technologies of that day. These technologies will be mature and readily available to the habitat designer. We believe an acceleration of the normal pace of automation would allow a habitat to be safer and more easily maintained than would be the case otherwise. This document examines the operation of a habitat and describes elements of that operation which may benefit from an increased use of automation. Research topics within the automation realm are then defined and discussed with respect to the role they can have in the design of the habitat. Problems associated with the integration of advanced technologies into real-world projects at NASA are also addressed.

Swab, Rodney E.↗
NASA NTRS2019

Overview of NASA's Solar Electric Propulsion Project

NASA is continuing to develop and qualify a state of the art 13 kW-class Advanced Electric Propulsion System (AEPS) for NASA exploration missions through a contract with Aerojet Rocketdyne. An objective of the AEPS project is to empower the US space industry to accelerate the adoption of high power electric propulsion technologies by reducing the risk and uncertainty of integrating Solar Electric Propulsion (SEP) technologies into space flight systems. NASA and AEPS contract has recently initiated engineering hardware testing of the Hall Current Thruster (HCT), Power Processing Unit (PPU), and Xenon Flow Controller (XFC) at both the component and system levels. The successful completion of these tests will provide the required information to advance the AEPS system towards Critical Design Review. In support of the AEPS contract, NASA and JPL have been performing risk reduction activities to address specific concerns of the state of the art higher power Hall thruster propulsion system. These risk reduction activities have included long duration wear testing of the Technology Demonstration Unit (TDU) Hall thruster and cathode hardware, thermal cycling testing of TDU cathode heaters and coils, plasma plume measurements, and investigating PPU design. In addition to NASA propulsion development, the SEP project is developing the Plasma Diagnostic Package (PDP) and the SEP Testbed. The PDP is designed for use in conjunction with a high powered EP system to characterize in-space operation. The SEP Testbed system is developed for demonstration of Abstract: NASA is continuing to develop and qualify a state of the art 13 kW-class Advanced Electric Propulsion System (AEPS) for NASA exploration missions through a contract with Aerojet Rocketdyne. An objective of the AEPS project is to empower the US space industry to accelerate the adoption of high power electric propulsion technologies by reducing the risk and uncertainty of integrating Solar Electric Propulsion (SEP) technologies into space flight systems. NASA and AEPS contract has recently initiated engineering hardware testing of the Hall Current Thruster (HCT), Power Processing Unit (PPU), and Xenon Flow Controller (XFC) at both the component and system levels. The successful completion of these tests will provide the required information to advance the AEPS system towards Critical Design Review. In support of the AEPS contract, NASA and JPL have been performing risk reduction activities to address specific concerns of the state of the art higher power Hall thruster propulsion system. These risk reduction activities have included long duration wear testing of the Technology Demonstration Unit (TDU) Hall thruster and cathode hardware, thermal cycling testing of TDU cathode heaters and coils, plasma plume measurements, and investigating PPU design. In addition to NASA propulsion development, the SEP project is developing the Plasma Diagnostic Package (PDP) and the SEP Testbed. The PDP is designed for use in conjunction with a high powered EP system to characterize in-space operation. The SEP Testbed system is developed for demonstration of an integrated SEP end-to-end system performance. The paper will present an overview of the NASA and the AEPS contract activities and a summary of the associated NASA in-house activities.

Plasma Diagnostics Package↗
DOE OSTI2026

Optimization of the FRIB beam dump: a hybrid genetic algorithm and reinforcement learning approach

The operational envelope of high-power-density systems, such as particle accelerators and advanced nuclear energy systems, is critically constrained by the need to manage extreme thermal loads. To address this, we present a novel hybrid optimization framework combining a genetic algorithm (GA) with a soft actor-critic (SAC) deep reinforcement learning agent. This framework was applied to a practical high-heat-flux problem: redesigning the beam dump at the Facility for Rare Isotope Beams (FRIB) for a power upgrade from 20 kW to 50 kW. The resulting design, validated by three-dimensional conjugate heat transfer simulations, suppresses hazardous hot spots and yields a markedly more uniform temperature distribution. This provides a robust operating margin, increasing the average power-handling capability by 72% relative to the current design, demonstrating the framework’s potential to solve complex thermal management challenges in both accelerator technology and advanced nuclear systems.

Accelerator↗
NASA NTRS2007

Thermal Characterization Study of Lithium-Ion Cells

The primary challenge in designing a full scale lithium-ion (Li-ion) battery system is safety under both normal operating as well as abusive conditions. The normal conditions involve expected charge/discharge cycles and it is known that heat evolves in batteries during those cycles. This is a major concern in the design for high power applications and careful thermal management is necessary to alleviate this concern. An emerging thermal measurement technology, such as the electrochemical calorimetric of batteries, will aid in the development of advanced, safe battery system. To support this technology, several "commercial-off-the-shelf" (COTS) Li-ion cells with different chemistries and designs are being evaluated for different cycling regimes at a given operating temperature. The Accelerated Rate Calorimeter (ARC)-Arbin cycler setup is used to measure the temperature, voltage, and current of the cells at different charge/discharge rates. Initial results demonstrated good cell cyclability. During the cycle testing, the cell exhibited an endothermic cooling in the initial part of the charge cycle. The discharge portion of the cycle is exothermic during the entire discharge period. The presence of an endothermic reaction indicates a significant entropy effect during the beginning of charge cycle. Further studies will be performed to understand the thermal characteristics of the Li-ion cells at the different operating conditions. The effects on the thermal response on cell aging and states-of-charge will also be identified.

Britton, Doris L.↗
NASA NTRS2014

Path Toward a Unifid Geometry for Radiation Transport

The Direct Accelerated Geometry for Radiation Analysis and Design (DAGRAD) element of the RadWorks Project under Advanced Exploration Systems (AES) within the Space Technology Mission Directorate (STMD) of NASA will enable new designs and concepts of operation for radiation risk assessment, mitigation and protection. This element is designed to produce a solution that will allow NASA to calculate the transport of space radiation through complex computer-aided design (CAD) models using the state-of-the-art analytic and Monte Carlo radiation transport codes. Due to the inherent hazard of astronaut and spacecraft exposure to ionizing radiation in low-Earth orbit (LEO) or in deep space, risk analyses must be performed for all crew vehicles and habitats. Incorporating these analyses into the design process can minimize the mass needed solely for radiation protection. Transport of the radiation fields as they pass through shielding and body materials can be simulated using Monte Carlo techniques or described by the Boltzmann equation, which is obtained by balancing changes in particle fluxes as they traverse a small volume of material with the gains and losses caused by atomic and nuclear collisions. Deterministic codes that solve the Boltzmann transport equation, such as HZETRN [high charge and energy transport code developed by NASA Langley Research Center (LaRC)], are generally computationally faster than Monte Carlo codes such as FLUKA, GEANT4, MCNP(X) or PHITS; however, they are currently limited to transport in one dimension, which poorly represents the secondary light ion and neutron radiation fields. NASA currently uses HZETRN space radiation transport software, both because it is computationally efficient and because proven methods have been developed for using this software to analyze complex geometries. Although Monte Carlo codes describe the relevant physics in a fully three-dimensional manner, their computational costs have thus far prevented their widespread use for analysis of complex CAD models, leading to the creation and maintenance of toolkit-specific simplistic geometry models. The work presented here builds on the Direct Accelerated Geometry Monte Carlo (DAGMC) toolkit developed for use with the Monte Carlo N-Particle (MCNP) transport code. The workflow for achieving radiation transport on CAD models using MCNP and FLUKA has been demonstrated and the results of analyses on realistic spacecraft/habitats will be presented. Future work is planned that will further automate this process and enable the use of multiple radiation transport codes on identical geometry models imported from CAD. This effort will enhance the modeling tools used by NASA to accurately evaluate the astronaut space radiation risk and accurately determine the protection provided by as-designed exploration mission vehicles and habitats

Lee, Kerry↗
NASA NTRS1998

X-34 Vehicle Aerodynamic Characteristics

The X-34, being designed and built by the Orbital Sciences Corporation, is an unmanned sub-orbital vehicle designed to be used as a flying test bed to demonstrate key vehicle and operational technologies applicable to future reusable launch vehicles. The X-34 will be air-launched from an L-1011 carrier aircraft at approximately Mach 0.7 and 38,000 feet altitude, where an onboard engine will accelerate the vehicle to speeds above Mach 7 and altitudes to 250,000 feet. An unpowered entry will follow, including an autonomous landing. The X-34 will demonstrate the ability to fly through inclement weather, land horizontally at a designated site, and have a rapid turn-around capability. A series of wind tunnel tests on scaled models was conducted in four facilities at the NASA Langley Research Center to determine the aerodynamic characteristics of the X-34. Analysis of these test results revealed that longitudinal trim could be achieved throughout the design trajectory. The maximum elevon deflection required to trim was only half of that available, leaving a margin for gust alleviation and aerodynamic coefficient uncertainty. Directional control can be achieved aerodynamically except at combined high Mach numbers and high angles of attack, where reaction control jets must be used. The X-34 landing speed, between 184 and 206 knots, is within the capabilities of the gear and tires, and the vehicle has sufficient rudder authority to control the required 30-knot crosswind.

Brauckmann, Gregory J.↗
DOE OSTI2025

A modeling study of ocean thermal energy conversion resource and potential environmental effects around Kailua-Kona, Hawaii

Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC) offers a promising renewable energy solution through a heat exchange process using the temperature difference between warm surface seawater and cold deep seawater. Because accurate resource characterization is critical for the optimal design and implementation of OTEC systems, a high-resolution numerical model is employed to better characterize the OTEC resource at Kona, Hawaii. Our model provides detailed spatial and temporal variability of the thermal gradient, which is essential for assessing the viability and efficiency of OTEC systems. The model results reveal distinct patterns and dynamics not captured by existing observations or models (e.g., lower-resolution information). These findings highlight the importance of using high-resolution models for accurate predictions of thermal gradient variability, ultimately supporting more efficient and sustainable OTEC deployment. Additionally, the study investigates the impacts of mixed water discharge from OTEC plants that can cause shock to organisms living in the surface water and potentially destabilize the water column. Understanding these effects is vital for minimizing any potential negative environmental consequences and ensuring the long-term viability of OTEC operations. Further, our model improves OTEC resource characterization, which can lead to optimal design and deployment of OTEC systems. The analysis of OTEC water discharge impacts can accelerate the development of OTEC technologies, overcoming permitting/consenting challenges. These findings contribute to the broader adoption of high-resolution modeling in ocean energy resource characterization, particularly for OTEC applications.

30 DIRECT ENERGY CONVERSION↗
NASA NTRS2018

Dynamic Power Convertor Development for Radioisotope Power Systems at NASA Glenn Research Center

The Thermal Energy Conversion Branch at NASA Glenn Research Center (GRC) is supporting the development of high-efficiency power convertors for use in Radioisotope Power Systems (RPS). Significant progress was made towards such a system that utilized Stirling conversion during the 2001 to 2015 timeframe. Flight development of the Advanced Stirling Radioisotope Generator (ASRG) was cancelled in 2013 by the Department of Energy (DOE) and NASA Headquarters primarily due to budget constraints, and the Advanced Stirling Convertor (ASC) technology contract was subsequently concluded in 2015. A new chapter of technology development has recently been initiated by the NASA RPS Program. This effort is considering all dynamic power convertor options, such as Stirling and Brayton cycles. Four convertor development contracts supporting this effort were awarded in 2017. The awarded contracts include two free-piston Stirling, one thermoacoustic Stirling, and one turbo-Brayton designs. The technology development contracts each consist of up to three phases: Design, Fabricate, and Test. As of May 2018, all contracts have completed the Design Phase, and each underwent a design review with an independent review board. Three of the contracts are planned to execute the Phase 2 option for fabrication. Convertors manifesting from these development efforts will then undergo independent validation and verification at NASA facilities, which will consist of convertor performance and RPS viability demonstrations. Example tests include launch vibration simulation, performance mapping over the environmental temperature range, and static acceleration exposure. In parallel with this renewed development effort, NASA GRC is still demonstrating free-piston Stirling convertor technology using assets from previous projects. The Stirling Research Laboratory (SRL) is still operating several convertors from previous development projects which have similarities and relevance to current contract designs. Four of which are flexure-bearing based, and another six are gas-bearing based. One of the flexure-bearing convertors has accumulated over 110,000 hours of operation, and holds the current record for maintenance-free heat-engine run-time. Another flexure-bearing convertor was recently manually shutdown after 105,620 hours of operation, then disassembled and inspected. This inspection produced a wealth of information about the effects of this amount of runtime on the technology's components. One of the engineering unit flexure-bearing convertors recently underwent launch simulation vibration test, a static acceleration exposure up to 20 g, and was then placed on extended operation. Amongst the gas-bearing convertors, the longest running unit has accumulated over 70,000 hours of operation. Four high-fidelity gas-bearing convertors from the ASRG project are still operating continuously, for which the longest runtime has reached 28,000 hours.

Oriti, Salvatore M.↗