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Search indexed NASA NTRS and DOE OSTI research on propulsion, heat transfer, battery materials and energy systems. Follow report and document links to the original sources.

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At least 523 records · Page 29
All sourcesNASA NTRSDOE OSTI
DOE OSTI2020

How equation of state selection impacts accuracy near the critical point: Forced convection supercritical CO 2 flow over a cylinder

Increasing application of supercritical fluids leads to increased use of numerical simulations to guide designs. However, the impact of Equations of State (EoS) selection on computational cost and accuracy is not well understood. Laminar flow around a heated cylinder is used as a test case. A robust matrix of 99-simulations is used to analyze the flow of carbon dioxide just above the critical point at the isobaric condition of 8 MPa and temperatures between 305 and 390 K. Four EoS were studied: Ideal Gas Law, cubic EoS’s Peng-Robinson and Soave-Redlich-Kwong, and the Span-Wagner EoS. Results were identical for isothermal cases, but for heated or cooled cases, the high-fidelity Span-Wagner EoS simulations presented drastically different wake structures. Compared to the high-fidelity SW EoS, cEoS’s underestimated Nu values by up to 38% and cEoS’s underestimated CD values by 18–42%. In conclusion, the Span-Wagner EoS required only 17% more computation time then the cubic EoS simulations, making the Span-Wagner EoS recommended for engineering design.

42 ENGINEERING↗
DOE OSTI2025

University of Hawai‘i, Shallow Geothermal Resources: Energy Technology Innovation Partnership Project (Final Report)

Scientists at Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory (Berkeley Lab) have teamed up with the University of Hawai‘i at Manoa (UH Manoa) through the U.S. Department of Energy’s Energy Technology Innovation Partnership Project to evaluate the technological and market feasibility of shallow geothermal heat exchanger (GHE) technology. UH requested this analysis to evaluate opportunities in building cooling, energy efficiency, and emissions reduction applications in Hawai‘i. UH has an abundance of geologic and geothermal data and is looking to the national labs’ expertise to execute this analysis. UH is also interested in investigating policy, regulatory, and business conditions advantageous for implementation of a pilot project and more broad deployment of this technology in Hawai‘i. In many locations around the world, the demands for heating and cooling are roughly balanced over the course of the year, so GHEs do not cause significant long-term changes in subsurface temperature. This is not the case in Hawai’i, where the demand for heating is very small, meaning that, over time, GHEs will add heat to the subsurface. If temperatures increase significantly, GHE systems will not work as designed. Regional groundwater flow has the potential to sweep heated water away from boreholes, thereby maintaining the functionality of the GHE system. Significant regional groundwater flow requires two things: a sufficiently large driving hydraulic head gradient (usually closely related to surface topography), and sufficient porosity and permeability to enable groundwater to flow in large enough quantities to enable near-borehole temperatures to be maintained at ambient values. Hawai‘i’s volcanic terrain offers ample surface topographic variation. The lava itself shows an extremely large range of porosity and permeability, so sites with large enough values of these properties must be selected. Numerical modeling of coupled groundwater and heat flow can be used to determine how large is large enough. Primarily, closed-loop systems have been investigated. Other options considered are open-loop systems and using cool seawater as the chilling source. Project work investigated the feasibility of GHE technology at two scales. At the island scale, GIS layers of various attributes relevant for GHE were combined to develop an overall favorability map for employing GHE in Hawai‘i. At the local scale, a hydrogeologic model for the subsurface component of a closed-loop system was developed for the Stan Sheriff Center at the UH Manoa campus. This site is considered promising because the rock below and immediately downgradient of the borefield is highly permeable, consisting of a subsurface karst system (limestone containing high-permeability open channels), which is underlain by a thick, high-permeability fractured basalt. Moreover, the site is near the base of the Ko‘olau Range, providing a large hydraulic head gradient. Thus, groundwater flow through the site is expected to be large, enabling efficient removal of heated groundwater. A full-GHE-system model of the site was also developed, with a simplified representation of the subsurface, in which groundwater flow is not considered and heat transfer is purely by conduction. Using the building cooling load data provided by UH, simulation results show that with groundwater flow present, a GHE can operate successfully for at least 10 years, but with no groundwater flow, the subsurface begins to heat up after only one year of operation, making the GHE unviable within 2-6 years. The team also developed a techno-economic model for this site to compare the cost of cooling using a GHE system with the costs of operating the current air-conditioning system. The GHE system is advantageous economically if favorable tax incentives and interest rates can be obtained.

15 GEOTHERMAL ENERGY↗
DOE OSTI2022

Design of an Additively Manufactured Recuperator With 800 °C Inlet Temperature for sCO2 Power Cycle Application

Abstract Recuperators with design temperatures at and above 800 °C can further increase the thermal efficiency of supercritical CO2 power cycles by enabling higher turbine exhaust temperatures. Mar-M247 is a well-suited nickel-based superalloy for high temperature service due to its high creep strength that prevents excessive material thickness being required for pressure containment. Additive manufacturing using a high-speed laser-directed energy deposition (L-DED) process presents a promising solution, with build trials demonstrating the ability to produce nonconventional flow channels for enhanced heat transfer. A design process is presented that includes aerothermal and mechanical evaluation to maximize performance within the constraints of the manufacturing process. A 2-D heat transfer network and pressure drop code allows prediction of flow distribution and its effect on overall thermal performance. Established literature correlations, along with CFD simulation, inform the prediction of heat transfer coefficients and friction factors for the flowpaths and enhancement features in the heat exchanger core. Mechanical evaluation using finite element analysis (FEA) modeling with the intent of the ASME Boiler & Pressure Vessel Code (BPVC) Section VIII, Div. 2 assesses the operational safety of the design. The detailed design features annular finned passages that take advantage of helical flow paths to distribute the flow from separated headers to shared heat transfer surfaces. Performance predictions for the recuperator at a 50 kW scale provide insights into the feasibility of the additively manufactured (AM) process to produce recuperators on a commercial scale that extend existing operating envelopes.

Engineering↗
DOE OSTI2020

Computational fluid dynamics analysis of char conversion in Sandia’s pressurized entrained flow reactor

Design and analysis of practical reactors utilizing solid feedstocks rely on reaction rate parameters that are typically generated in lab-scale reactors. Evaluation of the reaction rate information often relies on assumptions of uniform temperature, velocity, and species distributions in the reactor, in lieu of detailed measurements that provide local information. This assumption might be a source of substantial error, since reactor designs can impose significant inhomogeneities, leading to data misinterpretation. Spatially resolved reactor simulations help understand the key processes within the reactor and support the identification of severe variations of temperature, velocity, and species distributions. In this work, Sandia’s pressurized entrained flow reactor is modeled to identify inhomogeneities in the reaction zone. Tracer particles are tracked through the reactor to estimate the residence times and burnout ratio of introduced coal char particles in gasifying environments. The results reveal a complex mixing environment for the cool gas and particles entering the reactor along the centerline and the main high-speed hot gas reactor flow. Furthermore, the computational fluid dynamics (CFD) results show that flow asymmetries are introduced through the use of a horizontal gas pre-heating section that connects to the vertical reactor tube. Computed particle temperatures and residence times in the reactor differ substantially from the idealized plug flow conditions typically evoked in interpreting experimental measurements. Furthermore, experimental measurements and CFD analysis of heat flow through porous refractory insulation suggest that for the investigated conditions (1350 °C, <20 atm), the thermal conductivity of the insulation does not increase substantially with increasing pressure.

47 OTHER INSTRUMENTATION↗
DOE OSTI2023

SAS4A/SASSYS-1 Commercial Grade Dedication Example Report for a Generic Sodium Pool-Type Fast Reactor Application

In the U.S., a key component of the commercialization of advanced reactors is completion of a license application, which must ultimately be approved by the Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC). The approval of the license application by the NRC is contingent on satisfactory demonstration of the design basis and the response of the advanced reactor design to transient and accident scenarios using accepted codes and methods. This report describes the qualification and dedication requirements that the advanced reactor safety analysis system software SAS4A/SASSYS-1 are expected to need to fulfill to be used for sodium-cooled pool-type fast reactor licensing. The qualification and dedication requirements are identified through performance critical characteristics and evaluation model acceptance criteria representative of the advanced reactor design considered for licensing. This document captures, additionally, the verification process developed to demonstrate that the software fulfills the qualification and dedication requirements for a generic sodium-cooled pool-type fast reactor as part of the commercial grade dedication process. Like most software that has primarily existed in the research and development space, the most significant challenge facing SAS4A/SASSYS-1 for use in a licensing framework is the availability of a documentation basis describing the code pedigree. SAS4A/SASSYS-1 has been used for licensing of the fast flux test facility (FFTF) and the JOYO sodium-cooled fast reactor in Japan, as well as the design of the CRBR Plant. However, the historical verification and validation (V&V) activities supporting SAS4A/SASSYS-1 development do not align with modern software quality assurance (SQA) and V&V requirements. Two approaches to use of SAS4A/SASSYS-1 in a commercial licensing framework have been identified: commercial-grade dedication (CGD) and software qualification. The methods and requirements prescribed in the ASME NQA-1-2008/2009 Standard and Regulatory Guide 1.203 on the evaluation model development and assessment process (EMDAP) have been used as guidance to define the CGD and qualification processes, respectively. A qualification and dedication requirements matrix has been developed which utilizes fundamental software verification. In this process, software verification is defined as a software quality process aimed at defining software requirement specifications, developing software design documentation, and performing and documenting acceptance testing of the code against requirements. A key element of software qualification and dedication includes determination of software acceptance with respect to critical characteristics relevant to the functional requirements of the software. To assist with identification of cross-cutting transient phenomena and functional requirements, domestic SFR vendor designs have been reviewed to identify a reference SFR design. For this report, the reference design is defined as a pool-type reactor with metal alloy fuel, a liquid-metal intermediate heat transport system, and passive decay heat rejection systems. Given this reference, a series of high-level cross-cutting phenomena was identified for a general class of single-fault undercooling or reactivity insertion transients that scopes the design basis space, with the goal of assisting with prioritization of documentation development efforts for key transient models in SAS: 1) Reactivity feedback response prior to scram; 2) System-wide thermal inertia; 3) Transition in natural circulation flow regime in heat removal systems; 4) Decay heat generation; 5) Steady-state fuel characterization; 5) Clad/fuel behavior at elevated temperatures; 6) Point kinetics and decay heat; 7) Pump coastdown behavior; 8) Core flow redistribution in loss of forced convection; 9) Pool stratification. As a demonstration of CGD of SAS4A/SASSYS-1 for a sodium pool reactor, a software qualification and dedication gap analysis as it relates to code documentation has been performed. This effort leverages the framework established as part of the SAS4A/SASSYS-1 SQA Program. This CGD demonstration provides a framework that vendors can build upon to demonstrate the applicability of the SAS4A/SASSYS-1 software for licensing a sodium-cooled pool-type fast reactor.

21 SPECIFIC NUCLEAR REACTORS AND ASSOCIATED PLANTS↗
DOE OSTI2023

Virtual prototyping of liquid metal blanket performance in fusion pilot plant

Liquid metal blanket is a dominant design option for the next step fusion devices responsible for harvesting energy from fusion reaction, and simultaneously producing fuel for the same reaction through tritium breeding. Liquid metal blankets introduce additional complexity to the design due to fluid motion, fluid structure interaction, and magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) effects arising from the motion of the conducting fluid through the magnetic field. They are also directly affected by the plasma heat flux and neutronic fluence. PPPL is currently developing a virtual prototyping system for numerical analysis of the liquid metal blankets for future fusion devices. The system has a customized 3D computational fluid dynamics (CFD) code in its core, allowing MHD flow and conjugate heat transfer analysis in blankets fluids and solids. The code was successfully used before for dual coolant blanket analysis [A. Khodak et al., Fusion Eng. and Des. 137 (2018)]. Recently the same code was modified to allow verified simulation of MHD flows at high Hartmann numbers of several thousand typical for blanket applications. CFD code receives volumetric heat source distribution from the neutronic analysis based on MCNP code. In addition, direct tritium breeding simulation will be performed allowing optimization of the blanket performance. 2D axisymmetric version of neutronics code will be used for rapid optimization, with 3D version employed for detailed analysis. The surface heat distribution on the plasma facing wall will be defined by the software HEAT allowing 3D modeling of the heat flux based on the magnetic field distribution including gyro-orbit effects. Results of thermal analysis are imported into structural analysis code also included in the system. Finally, direct import of CAD geometry will be used for analyzing all components and as a result design option can be efficiently optimized.

70 PLASMA PHYSICS AND FUSION TECHNOLOGY↗
DOE OSTI2024

Evaluation of Additively Manufactured Monolithic SiC and SiC-Matrix Ceramic Matrix Composites for Concentrating Solar Receiver Applications - Fabrication and Testing of Receiver Design Feature Specimens in a Simulating Lab Test via Laser Heating

Increasing operating temperatures of solar receivers is paramount to the efficiency of concentrated solar thermal (CST) and solar power (CSP) systems. Owing to its high temperature stability combined with excellent thermal and optical properties, SiC has been the material of choice for application in high-temperature solar receivers. We report the results of our study of the effective heat transfer characteristics of several candidate SiC structure motifs, or feature geometries, which are fabricated via additive manufacturing. The SiC structure motifs studied include different permutations of three-dimensional periodic lattices and defined shapes. A solar-thermal simulating laboratory test setup is constructed using a 4kW CO2 laser system with beam shaping optics to apply concurrent radiative heating power on one face of 2”-diameter cylindrical feature specimens, representing the structure motifs of interest for receiver element design, while flowing through the sample as heat transfer fluid. Using the test setup, simulative test conditions representative of a concentrated solar flux of up to ~2000 suns could be achieved in the lab tests under varying air flow through the test structure. A simple 1D numerical analysis scheme is developed to extract an effective or compound heat transfer coefficient representative of the test structure under steady-state heat flow conditions. The test results and their use to guide the selection and optimization of SiC material and structure motifs for the receiver element design fabrication are discussed.

14 SOLAR ENERGY↗
DOE OSTI2021

Active magnetic regenerative cooling with smaller magnets

Magnetocaloric heat pumping near room temperature, a.k.a. magnetic cooling, relies on the active regenerator cycle to achieve functional temperature spans and realize economic and societal benefits promised by this emerging solid-state cooling technology. The cycle itself depends upon synchronizing oscillating flow of a heat transfer fluid through a solid porous active material matrix, or the refrigerant, with periods when the refrigerant is in the highest available (field-on) and in nearly zero (field-off) magnetic fields to accomplish heat transfer. With this in mind, in this work we analyze varying flow and magnetic field wave forms and the timing between when the fluid is pumped and when the magnetic field is turned on and off. We demonstrate that the volume and the cost of permanent magnet generating the field changes can be cut nearly in half with little to no effect on the device temperature span and cooling power normalized by the refrigerant mass.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2023

Asymmetric configurable double-sided manifold micro-channel cold plates

A cold plate having a manifold includes a recess extending from a first side to a second side of the manifold, where the recess includes openings to the recess positioned lengthwise along the first side and a single opening to the recess on the second side, an inlet and an outlet fluidly coupled to the recess, a plurality of plates fastened to the first side enclosing the openings, a heat sink fastened to the second side enclosing the single opening on the second side, and a plurality of fluid cores one of each positioned between each of the plurality of plates and the heat sink. The plurality of fluid cores include a flow distribution insert, a first plate fin positioned between the flow distribution insert and the heat sink fastened to the second side, and a second plate fin positioned between the flow distribution insert and the heat sink.

Zhou, Feng↗
DOE OSTI2020

Some observations concerning "laminarization" in heated vertical tubes

For low "turbulent" Reynolds numbers in strongly-heated vertical gas flow, fundamental results of existing direct numerical simulation (DNS) databases have been examined to deduce differences between cases which "revert" to turbulent and those that yield integral parameters which correspond to laminar flow (henceforth laminarizing or laminarized). The objectives of this paper are (1) to examine the streamwise evolution of near-wall flow structures and (2) to determine which, if any, proposed laminarization parameters could be used to discriminate between turbulent and laminarizing flows resulting. Views of streamlines in r-θ cross sections showed evidence of a ring of irregular-shaped streamwise vortices near the wall at all locations. The transverse advection of these vortices is hypothesized to provide a path of least resistance to the transport of streamwise momentum in the wall-normal direction. It is demonstrated that a steady streamwise laminar vortex can provide apparent turbulent momentum transport (as a consequence of the Reynolds decomposition) such that a reasonable mean velocity profile is predicted near the wall. For the present cases, the values of the non-dimensional radius (y c,w + = Re τ,w ) and of the modified wall Reynolds number did discriminate whether turbulent or laminarizing flow resulted.

99 GENERAL AND MISCELLANEOUS↗
DOE OSTI2022

Design of a Combined Proportional Integral Derivative Controller to Regulate the Temperature Inside a High-Temperature Tubular Solar Reactor

Solar fuels are proven to be promising candidates for thermochemical energy storage. However, the transient nature of solar radiation is an obstacle to maintaining a stable operational temperature inside a solar reactor. To overcome this challenge, the temperature of a solar reactor can be regulated by controlling the incoming solar radiation or the feedstock flowrate inside the reactor. In this work, a combined proportional integral derivative (PID) controller is implemented to regulate the temperature inside a high-temperature tubular solar reactor with counter-current flowing gas/particles. The control model incorporates two control systems to regulate incoming solar radiation and gas flow simultaneously. The design of the controller is based on a reduced-order numerical model of a high-temperature tubular solar reactor that is vertically oriented with an upward gas flow and downward particle flow. The reactor receives heat circumferentially through its wall over a finite segment of its length. Formulation of the heat transfer model is presented by applying the energy balance for the reactor tube and considering heat and mass transfer inside. A set of governing differential equations are solved numerically by using the finite volume method to obtain reactor wall, particles, and gas temperatures along the reactor length with various boundary conditions. Simulation results are used to tune the PID controller parameters by utilizing the Ziegler–Nichols tuning method. Both the simulation results and the controller performance are visualized on the LABVIEW platform. The controller is challenged to track different temperature setpoints with different scenarios of transient solar radiation. Here, the performance of the PID controller was compared to experimental results obtained from an industrial PID controller embedded in a 7 kW electric furnace. Results show that the combined PID controller is successful in maintaining a stable temperature inside the reactor by regulating the incoming solar radiation and the flowrate via small steady-state error and reasonable settling time and overshoot.

14 SOLAR ENERGY↗
DOE OSTI2023

Utah FORGE 1-2551: Multi-Stage Fracturing System and Well Tractor to Enable Zonal Isolation During Stimulation and EGS Operations in Horizontal Wellbores - Workshop Presentation and Report

Included here are a presentation recording, slides, and report on the Multi-Stage Fracturing System and Well Tractor to Enable Zonal Isolation During Stimulation and EGS Operations in Horizontal Wellbores project by Colorado School of Mines, presented by Dr. William W. Fleckenstein. One goal of the project is to develop and demonstrate the use of low-cost, rapid multistage fracture stimulation technology with cemented casing frac sleeves that eliminates packers used in both conventional stimulation and injection flow control. The second goal is to develop and demonstrate the devices to effectively detect and control the flow of heat-carrier fluid solely from a long-reach injector through the network of induced and existing fractures and produced from an open-hole long-reach well to improve heat recovery. This presentation was featured in the Utah FORGE R&D Annual Workshop on September 7, 2023. The workshop provided a valuable opportunity to explore the progress made in each of the 17 Research and Development projects funded under Solicitation 2020-1 which aim to enhance our understanding of the crucial factors influencing the development of Enhanced Geothermal Systems (EGS) reservoirs and resources.

15 GEOTHERMAL ENERGY↗
DOE OSTI2023

Integrated modeling of cracking during deep penetration laser welding of nickel alloys

During deep penetration laser welding of nickel alloys, interactions between composition and processing conditions can lead to the formation of defects. Inconel 740H, for example, has demonstrated a susceptibility to horizontal fusion zone cracking at locations between 70% and 80% of the weld depth during laser welding at powers above 5 kW. Coupling three-dimensional heat transfer, fluid flow, and stress modeling tools allowed that both the strain rate and stress normal to the solidification direction to be calculated. In the Inconel 740H welds, cracks formed at locations where the strain rate and stress simultaneously reached critical levels. No cracking was observed in the Inconel 690 welds, since the strain rate and stress did not simultaneously reach these critical levels.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2024

Increasing Main Cooler Thermal Performance for sCO2 Power Cycles

Increasing sCO2 power cycle cooler performance will increase the efficiency and lower the cost of electricity for sCO2 power cycles. This work considered the heat transfer performance of two counter-flow, shell-and-tube heat exchangers using local measurements. The heat exchangers were constructed using commercial tubing. One heat exchanger was constructed with a conventional, smooth inner tube (7 mm nominal inner diameter). The other was constructed with an additively manufactured tube with a square cross section and angled rib turbulators. For mixed mean temperatures away from the pseudocritical temperature, the heat transfer coefficient matched the Dittus-Boelter correlation. As the mixed mean temperature approached the pseudocritical temperature, the heat transfer coefficient deviated from the Dittus-Boelter correlation due to transverse property variation and buoyancy. The local and average heat transfer coefficients for angled rib tubes were nominally 150% to 300% greater than the heat transfer coefficients for the smooth tube. Trends in heat exchanger effectiveness indicated that the ribs were most beneficial when the water flow rates were at the low end of the range considered: 0.016 – 0.126 kg/s. Using results from prior system modeling, it is anticipated that adding heat transfer enhancement features in a cycle cooler will increase the sCO2 cycle efficiency by 0.34 percentage points.

Searle, Matthew↗
DOE OSTI2024

Increasing Main Cooler Thermal Performance for sCO2 Power Cycles

Increasing sCO2 power cycle cooler performance will increase the efficiency and lower the cost of electricity for sCO2 power cycles. This work considered the heat transfer performance of two counter-flow, shell-and-tube heat exchangers using local measurements. The heat exchangers were constructed using commercial tubing. One heat exchanger was constructed with a conventional, smooth inner tube (7 mm nominal inner diameter). The other was constructed with an additively manufactured tube with a square cross section and angled rib turbulators. For the present study, the measured Nusselt number was 30% less than the Dittus-Boelter correlation. The decrease was attributed to heat transfer degradation. The cooler performance was also reported as heat exchanger effectiveness. A factor of two improvement in Nusselt number (94%) relative to smooth conventional tubes was observed, indicating that heat transfer enhancement features (such as the ribs) are a suitable technology to overcome heat transfer degradation in sCO2 coolers. Trends in heat exchanger effectiveness indicated that the ribs were most beneficial when the water flow rates were at the low end of the range considered: 0.016 – 0.126 kg/s. Using results from prior system modeling, it is anticipated that adding heat transfer enhancement features in a cycle cooler will increase the sCO2 cycle efficiency by 0.34 percentage points.

Searle, Matthew↗
DOE OSTI2022

Performance Evaluation of a Prototype Moving Packed-Bed Particle/sCO 2 Heat Exchanger

Particle heat exchangers are a critical enabling technology for next generation concentrating solar power (CSP) plants that use supercritical carbon dioxide (sCO 2 ) as a working fluid. This report covers the design, manufacturing and testing of a prototype particle-to-sCO 2 heat exchanger targeting thermal performance levels required to meet commercial scale cost targets. In addition, the the design and assembly of integrated particle and sCO 2 flow loops for heat exchanger performance testing are detailed. The prototype heat exchanger was tested to particle inlet temperatures of 500 °C at 17 MPa which resulted in overall heat transfer coefficients of approximately 300 W/m 2 -K at the design point and cases using high approach temperature with peak values as high as 400 W/m 2 -K

14 SOLAR ENERGY↗
DOE OSTI2020

Heat exchanger

A heat exchanger that includes first and second headers, a first flow conduit fluidly connecting the first and second headers to allow for a flow of a first fluid through the heat exchanger, the first flow conduit being bounded by a first generally planar wall section extending between the first and second headers, a second flow conduit to allow for a flow of the second fluid through the heat exchanger, the second flow conduit being bounded by a second generally planar wall section spaced apart from the first generally planar wall section to define a gap therebetween, and a thermally conductive structure arranged within the gap and joined to the first and second generally planar wall sections to transfer heat therebetween. The thermally conductive structure is isolated from the first fluid by the first generally planar wall section and from the second fluid by the second generally planar wall section.

42 ENGINEERING↗
DOE OSTI2025

Modular Hydronic Room Conditioning System (CRADA NFE-24-10120 Final Report)

This project presents the development and validation of high-fidelity numerical models for fin-tube heat exchangers to enable accurate performance prediction and informed design optimization. The modeling framework integrates detailed geometric specifications, thermophysical property data, and system-level constraints to simulate the heat exchanger’s behavior under a range of operating conditions. The model is calibrated using real-world product specifications and validated against experimental data collected from controlled cooling and heating tests. In cooling mode, the model captures the overall trends in capacity and outlet air temperature but tends to underpredict latent effects, especially at lower air flow rates. In heating mode, the simulation consistently overestimates both the thermal capacity and outlet air temperature, indicating the need for refinement in air-side heat transfer assumptions. Despite these deviations, the model provides a solid foundation for optimization, allowing key design variables to be tuned within physical and performance-based constraints. This research advances the ability to simulate, validate, and optimize fin-tube heat exchanger designs with greater confidence and efficiency.

32 ENERGY CONSERVATION, CONSUMPTION, AND UTILIZATI↗