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NASA NTRS2006

Using Multi-scale Modeling System to Study the Interactions between Clouds, Precipitation, Aerosols, Radiation and Land Surface

Numerical cloud models, which are based the non-hydrostatic equations of motion, have been extensively applied to cloud-scale and mesoscale processes during the past four decades. Because cloud-scale dynamics are treated explicitly, uncertainties stemming from convection that have to be parameterized in (hydrostatic) large-scale models are obviated, or at least mitigated, in cloud models. Global models will use the non-hydrostatic framework when their horizontal resolution becomes about 10 km, the theoretical limit for the hydrostatic approximation. This juncture will be reached one to two decades from now. Over the past generation, voluminous datasets on atmospheric convection have been accumulated from radar, instrumented aircraft, satellites, and rawinsonde measurements in field campaigns, enabling the detailed evaluation of models. Improved numerical methods have resulted in more accurate and efficient dynamical cores in models. Improvements have been made in the parameterizations of microphysical processes, radiation, boundary-layer effects, and turbulence; however, microphysical parameterizations remain a major source of uncertainty in all classes of atmospheric models. In recent years, exponentially increasing computer power has extended cloud-resolving-model integrations from hours to months, the number of computational grid points from less than a thousand to close to ten million. Three-dimensional models are now more prevalent. Much attention is devoted to precipitating cloud systems where the crucial 1-km scales are resolved in horizontal domains as large as 10,000 km in two-dimensions, and 1,000 x 1,000 sq km in three-dimensions. Cloud models now provide statistical information useful for developing more realistic physically based parameterizations for climate models and numerical weather prediction models. It is also expected that NWP and mesoscale model can be run in grid size similar to cloud resolving model through nesting technique. A review of developments, improvements and applications of cloud models (GCE and WRF) at Goddard will be presented in this talk. In particular, a new approach to using multi-scale modeling system to study the interactions between clouds, precipitation, aerosols and land will be presented.

Tao, Wei-Kuo↗

NASA NTRS1964

On the Mechanics of Transition Produced by Particles Passing Through an Initially Laminar Boundary Layer and the Estimated Effect on the LFC Performance of the X-21 Aircraft

Numerous flight tests of the X-21 aircraft have shown total loss of LFC while flying within, or in the proximity of, visible clouds. In addition, erratic LFC performance has been observed in conditions of light haze when the humidity of the air is relatively high. An investigation of the phenomena which might account for loss of LFC in or near clouds and for the erratic performance in light haze has been conducted. The phenomena considered in the investigation are classified as either thermodynamic effects or mechanical effects. The results derived from the study of thermodynamic and mechanical effects are presented with recommendations for follow-up work.

Hall, G. R.↗

NASA NTRS1987

Numerical simulation of polar lows and comma clouds using simple dry models

Linear and nonlinear numerical channel models are used to simulate polar low/comma cloud evolution. The basic state of the model is idealized and can be specified analytically. It has strong horizontal as well as vertical wind shear and implicitly includes the effect of sensible heat fluxes from the lower boundary. This is done by having a layer of reduced stability present in the lower troposphere. The results of the linear model study are presented and used to provide input for the nonlinear model integration. It is shown that, given sufficient horizontal resolution, many features of polar low/comma clouds can be simulated by the nonlinear primitive equations model and the idealized basic state, in particular a rapidly growing disturbance with a wavelength on the order of 1000 km.

Mudrick, Stephen E.↗

NASA NTRS2014

Global Free-tropospheric NO2 Abundances Derived Using a Cloud Slicing Technique from AURA OMI

We derive free-tropospheric NO2 volume mixing ratios (VMRs) by applying a cloud-slicing technique to data from the Ozone Monitoring Instrument (OMI) on the Aura satellite. In the cloud-slicing approach, the slope of the above-cloud NO2 column versus the cloud scene pressure is proportional to the NO2 VMR. In this work, we use a sample of nearby OMI pixel data from a single orbit for the linear fit. The OMI data include cloud scene pressures from the rotational-Raman algorithm and above-cloud NO2 vertical column density (VCD) (defined as the NO2 column from the cloud scene pressure to the top of the atmosphere) from a differential optical absorption spectroscopy (DOAS) algorithm. We compare OMI-derived NO2 VMRs with in situ aircraft profiles measured during the NASA Intercontinental Chemical Transport Experiment Phase B (INTEX-B) campaign in 2006. The agreement is generally within the estimated uncertainties when appropriate data screening is applied. We then derive a global seasonal climatology of free-tropospheric NO2 VMR in cloudy conditions. Enhanced NO2 in the free troposphere commonly appears near polluted urban locations where NO2 produced in the boundary layer may be transported vertically out of the boundary layer and then horizontally away from the source. Signatures of lightning NO2 are also shown throughout low and middle latitude regions in summer months. A profile analysis of our cloud-slicing data indicates signatures of lightning-generated NO2 in the upper troposphere. Comparison of the climatology with simulations from the global modeling initiative (GMI) for cloudy conditions (cloud optical depth less than10) shows similarities in the spatial patterns of continental pollution outflow. However, there are also some differences in the seasonal variation of free-tropospheric NO2 VMRs near highly populated regions and in areas affected by lightning-generated NOx.

NO2↗

NASA NTRS1984

Ensemble formulation of surface fluxes and improvement in evapotranspiration and cloud parameterizations in a GCM

The influence of some modifications to the parameters of the current general circulation model (GCM) is investigated. The aim of the modifications was to eliminate strong occasional bursts of oscillations in planetary boundary layer (PBL) fluxes. Smoothly varying bulk aerodynamic friction and heat transport coefficients were found by ensemble averaging of the PBL fluxes in the current GCM. A comparison was performed of the simulations of the modified model and the unmodified model. The comparison showed that the surface fluxes and cloudiness in the modified model simulations were much more accurate. The planetary albedo in the model was also realistic. Weaknesses persisted in the models positioning of the Inter-tropical convergence zone (ICTZ) and in the temperature estimates for polar regions. A second simulation of the model following reparametrization of the cloud data showed improved results and these are described in detail.

Sud, Y. C.↗

NASA NTRS2014

Global Free Tropospheric NO2 Abundances Derived Using a Cloud Slicing Technique Applied to Satellite Observations from the Aura Ozone Monitoring Instrument (OMI)

We derive free-tropospheric NO2 volume mixing ratios (VMRs) and stratospheric column amounts of NO2 by applying a cloud slicing technique to data from the Ozone Monitoring Instrument (OMI) on the Aura satellite. In the cloud-slicing approach, the slope of the above-cloud NO2 column versus the cloud scene pressure is proportional to the NO2 VMR. In this work, we use a sample of nearby OMI pixel data from a single orbit for the linear fit. The OMI data include cloud scene pressures from the rotational-Raman algorithm and above-cloud NO2 vertical column density (VCD) (defined as the NO2 column from the cloud scene pressure to the top-of-the-atmosphere) from a differential optical absorption spectroscopy (DOAS) algorithm. Estimates of stratospheric column NO2 are obtained by extrapolating the linear fits to the tropopause. We compare OMI-derived NO2 VMRs with in situ aircraft profiles measured during the NASA Intercontinental Chemical Transport Experiment Phase B (INTEX-B) campaign in 2006. The agreement is generally within the estimated uncertainties when appropriate data screening is applied. We then derive a global seasonal climatology of free-tropospheric NO2 VMR in cloudy conditions. Enhanced NO2 in the free troposphere commonly appears near polluted urban locations where NO2 produced in the boundary layer may be transported vertically out of the boundary layer and then horizontally away from the source. Signatures of lightning NO2 are also shown throughout low and middle latitude regions in summer months. A profile analysis of our cloud slicing data indicates signatures of uplifted and transported anthropogenic NO2 in the middle troposphere as well as lightning-generated NO2 in the upper troposphere. Comparison of the climatology with simulations from the Global Modeling Initiative (GMI) for cloudy conditions (cloud optical thicknesses > 10) shows similarities in the spatial patterns of continental pollution outflow. However, there are also some differences in the seasonal variation of free-tropospheric NO2 VMRs near highly populated regions and in areas affected by lightning-generated NOx. Stratospheric column NO2 obtained from cloud slicing agrees well with other independently-generated estimates, providing further confidence in the free-tropospheric results.

NO2↗

NASA NTRS1990

Heat transfer measurements from a NACA 0012 airfoil in flight and in the NASA Lewis icing research tunnel

Local heat transfer coefficients from a smooth and roughened NACA 0012 airfoil were measured using a steady state heat flux method. Heat transfer measurements on the specially constructed 0.533 meter chord airfoil were made both in flight on the NASA Lewis Twin Otter Research Aircraft and in the NASA Lewis Icing Research Tunnel (IRT). Roughness was obtained by the attachment of small, 2 mm diameter, hemispheres of uniform size to the airfoil surface in four distinct patterns. The flight data was taken for the smooth and roughened airfoil at various Reynolds numbers based on chord in the range of 1.24x10(exp 6) to 2.50x10(exp 6) and at various angles of attack up to 4 degrees. During these flight tests the free stream velocity turbulence intensity was found to be very low (less than 0.1 percent). The wind tunnel data was taken in the Reynolds number range of 1.20x10(exp 6) to 4.52x10(exp 6) and at angles of attack from -4 degrees to +8 degrees. The turbulence intensity in the IRT was 0.5 to 0.7 percent with the cloud making spray off. Results for both the flight and tunnel tests are presented as Frossling number based on chord versus position on the airfoil surface for various roughnesses and angle of attack. A table of power law curve fits of Nusselt number as a function of Reynolds number is also provided. The higher level of turbulence in the IRT versus flight had little effect on heat transfer for the lower Reynolds numbers but caused a moderate increase in heat transfer at the higher Reynolds numbers. Turning on the cloud making spray air in the IRT did not alter the heat transfer. Roughness generally increased the heat transfer by locally disturbing the boundary layer flow. Finally, the present data was not only compared with previous airfoil data where applicable, but also with leading edge cylinder and flat plate heat transfer values which are often used to estimate airfoil heat transfer in computer codes.

Poinsatte, Philip E.↗

NASA NTRS1991

Prediction of ice shapes and their effect on airfoil performance

Calculations of ice shapes and the resulting drag increases are presented for experimental data on a NACA 0012 airfoil. They were made with a combination of LEWICE and interactive boundary-layer codes for a wide range of conditions which include air speed and temperature, the droplet size and liquid water content of the cloud, and the angle of attack of the airfoil. In all cases, the calculated results account for the drag increase due to ice accretion and, in general, show good agreement.

Shin, Jaiwon↗

NASA NTRS2012

Recent Progress on Deep Blue Aerosol Algorithm as Applied TO MODIS, SEA WIFS, and VIIRS, and Their Intercomparisons with Ground Based and Other Satellite Measurements

The impact of natural and anthropogenic sources of aerosols has gained increasing attention from scientific communities in recent years. Indeed, tropospheric aerosols not only perturb radiative energy balance by interacting with solar and terrestrial radiation, but also by changing cloud properties and lifetime. Furthermore, these anthropogenic and natural air particles, once generated over the source regions, can be transported out of the boundary layer into the free troposphere and can travel thousands of kilometers across oceans and continents resulting in important biogeochemical impacts on the ecosystem. With the launch of SeaWiFS in 1997, Terra/MODIS in 1999, and Aqua/MODIS in 2002, high quality comprehensive aerosol climatology is becoming feasible for the first time. As a result of these unprecedented data records, studies of the radiative and biogeochemical effects due to tropospheric aerosols are now possible. In this talk, we will demonstrate how this newly available SeaWiFS/MODIS aerosol climatology can provide an important piece of puzzles in reducing the uncertainty of estimated climatic forcing due to aerosols. We will start with the global distribution of aerosol loading and their variabilities over both land and ocean on short- and long-term temporal scales observed over the last decade. The recent progress made in Deep Blue aerosol algorithm on improving accuracy of these Sea WiFS / MODIS aerosol products in particular over land will be discussed. The impacts on quantifying physical and optical processes of aerosols over source regions of adding the Deep Blue products of aerosol properties over bright-reflecting surfaces into Sea WiFS / MODIS as well as VIIRS data suite will also be addressed. We will also show the intercomparison results of SeaWiFS/MODIS retrieved aerosol optical thickness with data from ground based AERONET sunphotometers over land and ocean as well as with other satellite measurements. The trends observed in global aerosol loadings of both natural and anthropogenic sources based upon more than a decade of combined MODIS/SeaWiFS data (1997-2011) will be discussed. We will also address the importance of various key issues such as differences in spatial-temporal sampling rates and observation time between different satellite measurements could potentially impact these intercomparisons results, especially for using the monthly mean data, and thus on estimates of long-term aerosol trends.

Hsu, N. Christina↗

NASA NTRS2021

Evaluation and Applications of Multi-Instrument Boundary-Layer Thermodynamic Retrievals

Recent reports have highlighted the need for improved observations of the boundary layer. In this study, we explore the combination of ground-based active and passive remote sensors deployed for thermodynamic profiling to analyze various boundary-layer observation strategies. Optimal-estimation retrievals of thermodynamic profiles from Atmospheric Emitted Radiance Interferometer (AERI) observed spectral radiance are compared with and without the addition of active sensor observations from a May–June 2017 observation period at the Atmospheric Radiation Measurement–Southern Great Plains Site. In all, three separate thermodynamic retrievals are considered here: retrievals including AERI data only, retrievals including AERI data and Vaisala water vapour differential absorption lidar data, and retrievals including AERI data and Raman lidar data. First, the three retrievals are compared to each other and to reference radiosonde data over the full observation period to get a bulk understanding of their differences and characterize the impact of clouds on these retrieved profiles. These analyses show that the most significant differences are in the water vapour field, where the active sensors are better able to represent the moisture gradient in the entrainment zone near boundary layer top. We also explore how differences in retrievals may impact results of applied analyses including land–atmosphere coupling, convection indices, and severe storm environmental characterization. Overall, adding active sensors to the optimal-estimation retrieval showed some added information, particularly in the moisture field. Given the costs of such platforms, the value of that added information must be weighed for the application at hand.

boundary-layer observation↗

NASA NTRS1990

Diurnal variation in the turbulent structure of the cloudy marine boundary layer during FIRE 1987

During the 1987 FIRE marine stratocumulus experiment the U.K. Meteorological Office operated a set of turbulence probes attached to the tether cable of a balloon based on San Nicolas Island. Typically six probes were used; each probe is fitted with Gill propeller anemometers, a platinum resistance thermometer and wet and dry thermistors, to permit measurements of the fluxes of momentum, heat, and humidity. The orientation of each probe is determined from a pair of inclinometers and a three-axis magnetometer. Sufficient information is available to allow the measured wind velocities to be corrected for the motion of the balloon. On the 14 to 15 July measurements were made over the period 1530 to 1200 UTC and again, after a short break for battery recharging and topping-up the balloon, between 0400 to 0900 UTC. Data were therefore recorded from morning to early evening, and again for a period overnight. Six probes were available for the daytime measurements, five for the night. Data were recorded at 4 Hz for individual periods of a little over an hour. The intention was to keep a minimum of one probe at or just above cloud top; small changes in balloon height were necessary to accommodate changes in inversion height. The ability of the balloon system to make simultaneous measurements at several levels allows the vertical structure of the boundary layer to be displayed without resort to composites. Turbulent statistics were calculated from 2 hour periods, one straddling local noon and one at night. These were subdivided into half-hour averaging intervals for the evaluation of variances and fluxes.

Hignett, Phillip↗

NASA NTRS1993

Cloud boundaries during FIRE 2

To our knowledge, previous observations of cloud boundaries have been limited to studies of cloud bases with ceilometers, cloud tops with satellites, and intermittent reports by aircraft pilots. Comprehensive studies that simultaneously record information of cloud top and cloud base, especially in multiple layer cases, have been difficult, and require the use of active remote sensors with range-gated information. In this study, we examined a 4-week period during which the NOAA Wave Propagation Laboratory (WPL) 8-mm radar and the Pennsylvania State University (PSU) 3-mm radar operated quasi-continuously, side by side. By quasi-continuously, we mean that both radars operated during all periods when cloud was present, during both daytime and nighttime hours. Using this data, we develop a summary of cloud boundaries for the month of November for a single location in the mid-continental United States.

Uttal, Taneil↗

NASA NTRS1992

Southern Hemisphere Lidar Measurements of the Aerosol Clouds from Mt. Pinatubo and Mt. Hudson

On 19 Jul., 1991, during tests to determine the ability of the newly-modified CSIRO Ns:YAG lidar to measure signals from the stratosphere before the arrival of dust from the eruption of Mt. Pinatubo, a strongly scattering layer was detected at an altitude of 2 km. That evening, the spectacular sunset and twilight were typical of volcanically disturbed conditions. Lidar measurements at 532 nm were made between 1400 and 1500 EST (0400-0500 UT) on 19 Jul. through broken cloud. Approximately 3800 laser firings were averaged in 256 shot blocks. These and subsequent data have been analyzed to produce profiles of aerosol volume backscatter function and scattering ratio. Clouds again prevented a clear view of the twilights on the next two nights, although there was some evidence for an enhanced glow. The evidence suggested that the aerosol layer had disappeared. An explanation for this disappearance and the earlier than expected arrival of the layer over Melbourne was required. Nimbus 7 TOMS data for 23 Jun. showed that the SO2 from the eruption had extended at least 11000 km to the west and that the southern boundary of the cloud had reached 15 degrees S just 8 days after the climactic eruption. It can be assumed that this cloud also contained dust and sulphuric acid aerosol. It was proposed that a section had then been broken away from the main cloud and carried south by a large scale eddy between the low latitude easterlies and the strong mid-latitude westerlies which finally carried the aerosol cloud over southern Australia. Accompanying 30 mb wind data showed a counter clockwise circulation, responsible for the transport, located in the South Atlantic Ocean.

Young, Stuart A.↗

NASA NTRS1997

Trade-Wind Cloudiness and Climate

Closed Mesoscale Cellular Convection (MCC) consists of mesoscale cloud patches separated by narrow clear regions. Strong radiative cooling occurs at the cloud top. A dry two-dimensional Bousinesq model is used to study the effects of cloud-top cooling on convection. Wide updrafts and narrow downdrafts are used to indicate the asymmetric circulations associated with the mesoscale cloud patches. Based on the numerical results, a conceptual model was constructed to suggest a mechanism for the formation of closed MCC over cool ocean surfaces. A new method to estimate the radioative and evaporative cooling in the entrainment layer of a stratocumulus-topped boundary layer has been developed. The method was applied to a set of Large-Eddy Simulation (LES) results and to a set of tethered-balloon data obtained during FIRE. We developed a statocumulus-capped marine mixed layer model which includes a parameterization of drizzle based on the use of a predicted Cloud Condensation Nuclei (CCN) number concentration. We have developed, implemented, and tested a very elaborate new stratiform cloudiness parameterization for use in GCMs. Finally, we have developed a new, mechanistic parameterization of the effects of cloud-top cooling on the entrainment rate.

Randall, David A.↗

NASA NTRS2022

GNSS-RO Deep Refraction Signals from Moist Marine Atmospheric Boundary Layer (MABL)

The marine atmospheric boundary layer (MABL) has a profound impact on sensible heat and moisture exchanges between the surface and the free troposphere. The goal of this study is to develop an alternative technique for retrieving MABL-specific humidity (q) using GNSS-RO data in deep-refracted signals. The GNSS-RO signal amplitude (i.e., signal-to-noise ratio or SNR) at the deep straight-line height (H(SL)) was been found to be strongly impacted by water vapor within the MABL. This study presents a statistical analysis to empirically relate the normalized SNR (S(RO)) at deep HSL to the MABL q at 950 hPa (~400 m). When compared to the ERA5 reanalysis data, a good linear q–S(RO) relationship is found with the deep H(SL) S(RO) data, but careful treatments of receiver noise, SNR normalization, and receiver orbital altitude are required. We attribute the good q–S(RO) correlation to the strong refraction from a uniform, horizontally stratiform and dynamically quiet MABL water vapor layer. Ducting and diffraction/interference by this layer help to enhance the S(RO) amplitude at deep H(SL). Potential MABL water vapor retrieval can be further developed to take advantage of a higher number of S(RO) measurements in the MABL compared to the Level-2 products. A better sampled diurnal variation of the MABL q is demonstrated with the S(RO) data over the Southeast Pacific (SEP) and the Northeast Pacific (NEP) regions, which appear to be consistent with the low cloud amount variations reported in previous studies.

diurnal variation↗

NASA NTRS1989

Climatic equilibrium of the atmospheric convective boundary layer over a tropical ocean

A radiative-convective boundary layer model was developed by coupling a thermodynamic model of a partially mixed convective boundary layer (CBL) with a radiation model, and energy balance constraints were used to study coupled boundary layer (CBL) equilibrium over three timescales (about 1 day, about 10 days, and more than 100 days). It is shown that the variation in cloud top decreases with greater coupling to the atmosphere and the ocean. The slope of the latent heat flux with increasing SST decreases with more tropospheric coupling, and reverses sign with a coupled ocean.

Ridgway, W.↗

NASA NTRS2000

Sensing Water Vapon via Spacecraft Radio Occultation Observations

The radio occultation technique has been used to characterize planetary atmospheres since the 1960's spanning atmospheric pressures from 16 microbars to several bars. In 1988, the use of GPS signals to make occultation observations of Earth's atmosphere was realized by Tom Yunck and Gunnar Lindal at JPL. In the GPS to low-Earth-orbiter limb- viewing occultation geometry, Fresnel diffraction yield a unique combination of high vertical resolution of 100 m to 1 km at long wavelengths (approx. 20 cm) insensitive to particulate scattering which allows routine limb sounding from the lower mesosphere through the troposphere. A single orbiting GPS/GLONASS receiver can observe - 1000 to 1400 daily occultations providing as many daily, high vertical resolution soundings as the present global radiosonde network, but with far more evenly distributed, global coverage. The occultations yield profiles of refractivity as a function of height. In the cold, dry conditions of the upper troposphere and above (T less than 240 K), profiles of density, pressure (geopotential), and temperature can be derived. Given additional temperature information, water vapor can be derived in the midddle and lower troposphere with a unique combination of vertical resolution, global distribution and insensitivity to clouds and precipitation to an accuracy of approx. 0.2 g/kg. At low latitudes, moisture profiles will be accurate to 1-5% within the convective boundary layer and better than 20% below 6 to 7 km. Accuracies of climatological averages should be approx. 0. 1 g/kg limited by the biases in the temperature estimates. To use refractivity to constrain water vapor, knowledge of temperature is required. The simplest approach is to use the temperature field from an analysis such as the 6 hour ECMWF global analysis interpolated to the locations of each occultation. A better approach is to combine the temperature and moisture fields from such an analysis with the occultation refractivity in a weighting scheme based on the errors in each data field. A ID variational combinational approach has been developed at the UKMO. We win present results from both approaches from GPS/MET data taken in June and July 1995 and compare them with the ECMWF global 6 hour moisture analyses which are derived largely from TOVS and radiosonde data. Overall, the atmosphere below the 500 mb level appears somewhat drier in general than the ECNIWF humidity field. A 2-D (latitude vs. height) climatological snapshot derived from a 2-week span of GPS/MET data will be compared to the humidity climatology of Peixoto and Oort derived from radiosonde data from 1963-1973. Differences between the GPS results and Peixoto and Oort may be the signature of a climate trend over the past 30 years.

Kursinski, E. Robert↗

NASA NTRS2006

The Impact of Microphysics on Intensity and Structure of Hurricanes

During the past decade, both research and operational numerical weather prediction models, e.g. Weather Research and Forecast (WRF) model, have started using more complex microphysical schemes originally developed for high-resolution cloud resolving models (CRMs) with a 1-2 km or less horizontal resolutions. WFW is a next-generation mesoscale forecast model and assimilation system that has incorporated modern software framework, advanced dynamics, numeric and data assimilation techniques, a multiple moveable nesting capability, and improved physical packages. WFW model can be used for a wide range of applications, from idealized research to operational forecasting, with an emphasis on horizontal grid sizes in the range of 1-10 km. The current WRF includes several different microphysics options such as Lin et al. (1983), WSM 6-class and Thompson microphysics schemes. We have recently implemented three sophisticated cloud microphysics schemes into WRF. The cloud microphysics schemes have been extensively tested and applied for different mesoscale systems in different geographical locations. The performances of these schemes have been compared to those from other WRF microphysics options. We are performing sensitivity tests in using WW to examine the impact of six different cloud microphysical schemes on hurricane track, intensity and rainfall forecast. We are also performing the inline tracer calculation to comprehend the physical processes @e., boundary layer and each quadrant in the boundary layer) related to the development and structure of hurricanes.

Tao, Wei-Kuo↗