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At least 487 records · Page 27

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DOE OSTI2024

Quantitative Mid-infrared Photoluminescence Characterization of Black Phosphorus–Arsenic Alloys

Black phosphorus (bP) is a promising material for mid-infrared (mid-IR) optoelectronic applications, exhibiting high performance light emission and detection. Alloying bP with arsenic extends its operation toward longer wavelengths from 3.7 μm (bP) to 5 μm (bP 3 As 7 ), which is of great practical interest. Quantitative optical characterizations are performed to establish black phosphorus-arsenic (bPAs) alloys optoelectronic quality. Anisotropic optical constants (refractive index, extinction coefficient, and absorption coefficient) of bPAs alloys from near-infrared to mid-IR (0.2-0.9 eV) are extracted with reflection measurements, which helps optical device design. Quantitative photoluminescence (PL) of bPAs alloys with different As concentrations are measured from room temperature to 77 K. PL quantum yield measurements reveal a 2 orders of magnitude decrease in radiative efficiency with increasing As concentration. An optical cavity is designed for bP 3 As 7 , which allows for up to an order of magnitude enhancement in the quantum yield due to the Purcell effect. In conclusion, our comprehensive optical characterization provides the foundation for high performance mid-IR optical device design using bPAs alloys.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗

DOE OSTI2024

Extracting halo independent information from dark matter electron scattering data

Direct detection experiments and the interpretation of their results are sensitive to the velocity structure of the dark matter in our galactic halo. Here we extend the formalism that deals with such astrophysics-driven uncertainties, originally introduced in the context of dark-matter-nuclear scattering, to include dark-matter-electron scattering interactions. Using mock data, we demonstrate that the ability to determine the correct dark matter mass and velocity distribution is depleted for recoil spectra which only populate a few low-lying bins, such as models involving a light mediator. We also demonstrate how this formalism allows one to test the compatibility of existing experimental data sets (e.g. SENSEI and EDELWEISS), as well as make predictions for possible future experiments (e.g. GaAs-based detectors).

72 PHYSICS OF ELEMENTARY PARTICLES AND FIELDS↗

DOE OSTI2022

Ab initio nucleon-nucleus elastic scattering with chiral effective field theory uncertainties

Effective interactions for nucleon-nucleus elastic scattering from first principles require the use of the same nucleon-nucleon interaction in the structure and reaction calculations and a consistent treatment of the relevant operators at each order. Systematic investigations of the effect of truncation uncertainties of chiral nucleon-nucleon ( N N ) forces have been carried out for scattering observables in the two- and three-nucleons system as well as for bound-state properties of light nuclei. Here we extend this type of study to proton and neutron elastic scattering for 16 O and 12 C. Using the frameworks of the spectator expansion of multiple scattering theory as well as the no-core shell model, we employ one specific chiral interaction from the LENPIC collaboration and consistently calculate the leading-order effective nucleon-nucleus interaction up to the third chiral order, from which we extract elastic scattering observables. Then we apply pointwise as well as correlated uncertainty quantification for the estimation of the chiral truncation error. We calculate and analyze proton elastic scattering observables for 16 O and 12 C as well as neutron elastic scattering observables for 12 C between 65 and 185 MeV projectile kinetic energy. We find in all cases qualitatively similar results for the chiral truncation uncertainties as in few-body systems and assess them using similar diagnostic tools. The order-by-order convergence of the scattering observables for 16 O and 12 C is very reasonable around 100 MeV, while for higher energies the chiral expansion parameter becomes too large for convergence. Comparing proton and neutron differential cross sections reveals that their description is comparable up to around 100 MeV. Here, we also find a nearly perfect correlation between the differential cross section for neutron scattering and the N N Wolfenstein amplitudes for small momentum transfers. The diagnostic tools for studying order-by-order convergence in observables in few-body systems can be employed for observables in nucleon-nucleus scattering with only minor modifications provided the momentum scale in the problems is not too large. We also find that the chiral N N interaction on which our study is based gives a very good description of differential cross sections for 16 O and 12 C as low as 65-MeV projectile energy, particularly in the forward direction. In addition, the very forward direction of the neutron differential cross section mirrors the behavior of the N N interaction amazingly well.

6 ≤ A ≤ 19↗

DOE OSTI2024

Gauge-invariant renormalization of four-quark operators

We study the renormalization of four-quark operators in one-loop perturbation theory. We employ a coordinate-space gauge-invariant renormalization scheme (GIRS), which can be advantageous compared to other schemes, especially in nonperturbative lattice investigations. From our perturbative calculations, we extract the conversion factors between GIRS and the modified minimal subtraction scheme ( MS ¯ ) at the next-to-leading order. As a by-product, we also obtain the relevant anomalous dimensions in the GIRS scheme. A formidable issue in the study of the four-quark operators is that operators with different Dirac matrices mix among themselves upon renormalization. We focus on both parity-conserving and parity-violating four-quark operators, which change flavor numbers by two units ( Δ F = 2 ). The extraction of the conversion factors entails the calculation of two-point Green’s functions involving products of two four-quark operators, as well as three-point Green’s functions with one four-quark and two bilinear operators. The significance of our results lies in their potential to refine our understanding of QCD phenomena, offering insights into the precision of Cabibbo-Kobayashi-Maskawa (CKM) matrix elements and shedding light on the nonperturbative treatment of complex mixing patterns associated with four-quark operators. Published by the American Physical Society 2024

Constantinou, M. (ORCID:0000000269881745)↗

DOE OSTI2022

Precise measurement of the nuclear dependence of the EMC effect in light nuclei

Measurements of inclusive electron scattering cross-section ratios from light nuclei over a wide range of the Björken G (0.3 ? G ? 1) up to &2 = 8.3 GeV2 were made as part of experiment E10-10-008, which was conducted in Hall C at the Thomas Jefferson National Accelerator Facility. The measurements were performed using a beam energy of 10.602 GeV and an average beam current of 45 `A. This dissertation provides a thorough description of the experiment as well as the extracted ratios of inclusive nuclear cross-sections with respect to the deuterium cross-sections (the EMC effect) for the targets 9Be, 12C, 10B, and 11B. The nuclear dependence of the inclusive inelastic electron scattering cross-section has been measured for the first time in 10B and 11B.

Karki, Abishek↗

DOE OSTI2021

Biophysical analysis of the plant-specific GIPC sphingolipids reveals multiple modes of membrane regulation

The plant plasma membrane (PM) is an essential barrier between the cell and the external environment, controlling signal perception and transmission. It consists of an asymmetrical lipid bilayer made up of three different lipid classes: sphingolipids, sterols, and phospholipids. The glycosyl inositol phosphoryl ceramides (GIPCs), representing up to 40% of total sphingolipids, are assumed to be almost exclusively in the outer leaflet of the PM. However, their biological role and properties are poorly defined. In this study, we investigated the role of GIPCs in membrane organization. Because GIPCs are not commercially available, we developed a protocol to extract and isolate GIPC-enriched fractions from eudicots (cauliflower and tobacco) and monocots (leek and rice). Lipidomic analysis confirmed the presence of trihydroxylated long chain bases and 2-hydroxylated very long-chain fatty acids up to 26 carbon atoms. The glycan head groups of the GIPCs from monocots and dicots were analyzed by gas chromatograph-mass spectrometry, revealing different sugar moieties. Multiple biophysics tools, namely Langmuir monolayer, ζ-Potential, light scattering, neutron reflectivity, solid state 2H-NMR, and molecular modeling, were used to investigate the physical properties of the GIPCs, as well as their interaction with free and conjugated phytosterols. We showed that GIPCs increase the thickness and electronegativity of model membranes, interact differentially with the different phytosterols species, and regulate the gel-to-fluid phase transition during temperature variations. These results unveil the multiple roles played by GIPCs in the plant PM.

59 BASIC BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES↗

DOE OSTI2025

Probing celestial energy and charge correlations through real-time quantum simulations: Insights from the Schwinger model

Motivated by recent developments in the application of light-ray operators (LROs) in high energy physics, we propose a new strategy to study correlation functions of LROs through real-time quantum simulations. We argue that quantum simulators provide an ideal laboratory to explore the properties LROs in lower-dimensional quantum field theories. This is exemplified in the 1 + 1 -d Schwinger model, employing tensor network methods, focusing on the calculation of energy and charge correlators. Despite some challenges in extracting the necessary correlation functions from the lattice, the methodology used can be extended to real quantum devices. Published by the American Physical Society 2025

73 NUCLEAR PHYSICS AND RADIATION PHYSICS↗

DOE OSTI2020

A scoping review of non-destructive testing (NDT) techniques in building performance diagnostic inspections

Understanding building envelope thermodynamics is an essential foundation of building sciences, mainly due to the envelope’s role as a boundary layer for exterior environments, as well as a container and regulator of internal microclimates. This paper presents a scoping literature review of select Non-destructive Testing (NDT) techniques for building envelope scanning and surveying for thermodynamic diagnostics. The investigation focuses specifically on reviewing six NDT techniques: Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR), Light Detection and Ranging (LiDAR)/Laser Scanning, Thermography, Ultrasound, Close-Range Photogrammetry and Through Wall Imaging Radar (TWIR). The aim is to identify knowledge gaps in terms of their use in accurately characterizing envelope compositions for further integration in Building Energy Modeling (BEM). Each technique was evaluated according to set categories imbibed from the American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air Conditioning Engineering (ASHRAE) Standard 211P that showcase the technique’s ability to extract various relevant information. A framework is then developed to inform users on how to use hybrid NDT-based workflows applied in building envelope energy audits. The study concludes by discussing possibilities of utilizing NDT in large-scale audit automation, BEM integration, and developing built environment policies focusing on increasing existing building performance through retrofitting design.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗

DOE OSTI2024

O Corona, where art thou? eROSITA’s view of UV-optical-IR variability-selected massive black holes in low-mass galaxies

Finding massive black holes (MBHs,M BH ≈ 10 4 –10 7 M ⊙ ) in the nuclei of low-mass galaxies $\left( {{M_*}\mathop {\mathop < \limits_ }\limits_ {{10}^{10}}{M_ \odot }} \right)$ is crucial to constrain seeding and growth of black holes over cosmic time, but it is particularly challenging due to their low accretion luminosities. Variability selection via long-term photometric ultraviolet, optical, or infrared (UVOIR) light curves has proved effective and identifies lower-Eddington ratios compared to broad and narrow optical spectral lines searches. In the inefficient accretion regime, X-ray and radio searches are effective, but they have been limited to small samples. Therefore, differences between selection techniques have remained uncertain. Here, we present the first large systematic investigation of the X-ray properties of a sample of known MBH candidates in dwarf galaxies. We extracted X-ray photometry and spectra of a sample of ~200 UVOIR variability-selected MBHs and significantly detected 17 of them in the deepest available SRG/eROSITA image, of which four are newly discovered X-ray sources and two are new secure MBHs. This implies that tens to hundreds of LSST MBHs will have SRG/eROSITA counterparts, depending on the seeding model adopted. Surprisingly, the stacked X-ray images of the many non-detected MBHs are incompatible with standard disk-corona relations, typical of active galactic nuclei, inferred from both the optical and radio fluxes. They are instead compatible with the X-ray emission predicted for normal galaxies. After careful consideration of potential biases, we identified that this X-ray weakness needs a physical origin. A possibility is that a canonical X-ray corona might be lacking in the majority of this population of UVOIR-variability selected low-mass galaxies or that unusual accretion modes and spectral energy distributions are in place for MBHs in dwarf galaxies. This result reveals the potential for severe biases in occupation fractions derived from data from only one waveband combined with SEDs and scaling relations of more massive black holes and galaxies.

Astronomy & Astrophysics↗

DOE OSTI2022

Carrier Dynamics of Polar, Semipolar, and Nonpolar InGaN/GaN LEDs Measured by Small-Signal Electroluminescence

The carrier dynamics in InGaN/GaN light-emitting diodes (LEDs) are directly tied to their efficiency and maximum modulation speed, which are important metrics for solid-state lighting, displays, and optical communication. In this work, we measure the carrier dynamics of a variety of InGaN/GaN LEDs using small-signal electroluminescence methods [1]. A rate equation approach and associated small-signal circuit are used to model carrier injection, recombination in the active region, recombination in the cladding regions, and carrier escape. The model is fit to the measured optical frequency response (S21) and input impedance (S11) of the LEDs to extract the various carrier lifetimes, the carrier density, and the radiative and non-radiative recombination rates. We specifically study planar nonpolar and semipolar LEDs, which show record-high modulation speeds for III-nitride LEDs and present the modulation characteristics of core-shell nanowire-based LEDs. The planar nonpolar m-plane ($101\bar{0}$) micro-LEDs achieve a record-high -3dB modulation bandwidth for a III-nitride LED of 1.5 GHz [2]. The -3dB response of an electrically injected nanowire-based micro-LED with nonpolar facets is also reported, showing a -3dB bandwidth of 1.2 GHz [3]. The high speed is attributed to the shorter carrier lifetime associated with the nonpolar orientation. We also study the carrier dynamics in semipolar ($20\bar{2}\bar{1}$) LEDs for various temperatures [4]. Finally, we present carrier dynamics measurements on commercial-grade c-plane epitaxy for various active region designs, including a wavelength series and a growth quality series. The wavelength series offers insight into the contributions of the quantum confined Stark effect (QCSE) and InGaN material quality on the green gap [5]. The growth quality series investigates the role of non-radiative centers on the LED performance. Extraction of the carrier dynamics using small-signal electroluminescence offers insight into the factors limiting the efficiency and high-speed performance of III-nitride emitters and can be leveraged to ultimately improve the devices.

LEDs, InGaN, electroluminescence, bandwidth, modul↗

DOE OSTI2020

Fully R2R-Printed Carbon-Nanotube-Based Limitless Length of Flexible Active-Matrix for Electrophoretic Display Application

A limitless-length flexible active-matrix implies that virtually any surface can be rendered into an interactive medium when laminated with electrophoretic or organic light-emitting diode sheets. However, performance, cost, and size limitations of current fabrication technologies and semiconducting materials, typically utilized in thin film transistor (TFT) active matrices (TFT-AMs), have hindered progress, thus preventing the realization of fully printed TFT-AMs on a plastic roll. Here, a new high-purity semiconducting single-walled carbon nanotube (s-SWCNT) ink is prepared by first isolating 99.9% pure s-SWCNTs via conjugated polymer extraction, and then utilizing a ligand-exchange method to formulate a novel hydrophilic gravure-compatible semiconducting ink. Based on the s-SWCNT ink, a fully additive manufacturing process using roll-to-roll (R2R) gravure printing enables the fabrication of a flexible TFT-AM, overcoming performance, cost, and size limitations. TFT-AMs with 10 to 40 PPI resolution where average mobility of 0.23 ± 0.12 cm 2 V –1 s –1 , average on–off ratio of 10 4.1 , and threshold voltage variation of ±13% are attained. As a proof of concept, an inexpensive and flexible electrophoretic display is demonstrated by simply laminating an electrophoretic sheet onto the R2R gravure-printed s-SWCNT-based TFT-AM.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗

DOE OSTI2022

Impact of Fuel Properties on the Combustion of Late Post Injections used for Aftertreatment Thermal Management

Typical calibration for catalyst thermal management for compression-ignition engines involves delaying the post-injection into the expansion stroke. Reduced work extraction due to the late heat release event is used to increase the exhaust gas temperature to shorten the time associated with reaching optimal temperatures for aftertreatment systems. Shorter catalyst heat-up time can simultaneously reduce tail-pipe emissions and the typical fuel penalties associated with this mode of operation. In this study, the effects of volatility, reactivity, and oxygen content of the fuel on combustion stability and emissions were studied in a light-duty single-cylinder research engine. Blends of iso-octane/ n-heptane and farnesane/ 2,2,4,4,6,8,8-heptamethylnonane were used to study the impacts of volatility and reactivity. At constant reactivity, little to no variation in combustion performance was observed due to differences in volatility. On the other hand, increased reactivity improved combustion stability and efficiency at late injection timings (+24 CAD). The combined effect of increase in chemical reactivity and oxygen content was analysed by comparing the baseline #2 diesel operation with two blends of mono-ethers and #2 diesel to achieve cetane numbers (CNs) of 45 and 55, and a pure blend of mono-ether components with CN > 100. Fuels with higher reactivity and oxygen content were found to reduce engine-out hydrocarbon and carbon mono-oxide emissions while also achieving stable combustion at post-injection timings later than those achievable with diesel fuel. The pure ether-blend had the latest achievable post-injection timing (≥+26 CAD) while still maintaining stable combustion. At similar combustion stability, the pure ether blend was found to have 2.8% higher combustion efficiency and 4.3% higher thermal efficiency than the baseline diesel. The ether-diesel blends at CN45 and CN55 were found to have 1.8% higher combustion efficiency than baseline diesel. The results demonstrate that fuels with increased reactivity can increase combustion efficiency, reducing carbon monoxide and hydrocarbon emissions, while maintaining similar exhaust temperature and combustion stability compared to baseline diesel. Further greenhouse gas benefits can also be realized as the mono-ether bioblendstocks show potential for >50% reduction in greenhouse gas emissions relative to diesel fuel based on their production method.

99 GENERAL AND MISCELLANEOUS↗

DOE OSTI2024

Holographic pseudoentanglement and the complexity of the AdS/CFT dictionary

The `quantum gravity in the lab' paradigm suggests that quantum computers might shed light on quantum gravity by simulating the CFT side of the AdS/CFT correspondence and mapping the results to the AdS side. This relies on the assumption that the duality map (the `dictionary') is efficient to compute. In this work, we show that the complexity of the AdS/CFT dictionary is surprisingly subtle: there might be cases in which one can efficiently apply operators to the CFT state (a task we call 'operator reconstruction') without being able to extract basic properties of the dual bulk state such as its geometry (which we call 'geometry reconstruction'). Geometry reconstruction corresponds to the setting where we want to extract properties of a completely unknown bulk dual from a simulated CFT boundary state. We demonstrate that geometry reconstruction may be generically hard due to the connection between geometry and entanglement in holography. In particular we construct ensembles of states whose entanglement approximately obey the Ryu-Takayanagi formula for arbitrary geometries, but which are nevertheless computationally indistinguishable. This suggests that even for states with the special entanglement structure of holographic CFT states, geometry reconstruction might be hard. This result should be compared with existing evidence that operator reconstruction is generically easy in AdS/CFT. A useful analogy for the difference between these two tasks is quantum fully homomorphic encryption (FHE): this encrypts quantum states in such a way that no efficient adversary can learn properties of the state, but operators can be applied efficiently to the encrypted state. We show that quantum FHE can separate the complexity of geometry reconstruction vs operator reconstruction, which raises the question whether FHE could be a useful lens through which to view AdS/CFT.

FOS: Physical sciences↗

DOE OSTI2021

Super Flexible Transparent Conducting Oxide-Free Organic–Inorganic Hybrid Perovskite Solar Cells with 19.01% Efficiency (Active Area=1 cm 2 )

Highly efficient organic-inorganic hybrid perovskite solar cells (OIHP-SCs) are often fabricated on a transparent conducting oxide (TCO) substrate such as indium tin oxide (ITO). However, the presence of TCOs is disadvantageous to the development of flexible OIHP-SCs due to the brittle nature of ITO which is easily breakable during bending. Herein, a flexible TCO-free OIHP-SC is demonstrated by using lithium bis(trifluoromethane)sulfonimide (Li-TFSI) as a codopant for the single-layer graphene transparent conducting electrode and poly(triarylamine) hole-transporting material (HTM) on a flexible polydimethylsiloxane substrate. The optical and electrical properties of the Li-TFSI-doped graphene substrate are measured by controlling the doping amount and the best conditions for charge extraction are established at a doping concentration of 20 mm Li-TFSI, thus optimizing the device photovoltaic performance. As a result, a highest power conversion efficiency of 19.01% is demonstrated by the flexible TCO-free OIHP-SC devices with an active area of 1 cm 2 . In addition, the flexible TCO-free OIHP-SCs exhibit good bending stability after 5000 bending cycles at radii of 6, 4, and 2 mm and excellent light soaking stability under 1 Sun light intensity over 1000 h as opposed to the poor stability when using poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene) polystyrene sulfonate as the HTM.

14 SOLAR ENERGY↗

DOE OSTI2023

Laser and optical transport line for laser-based ion beam diagnostics and control in the SNS linear accelerator

We report our recent upgrade of the laser and optical transport line for the laser-based ion beam diagnostics (laser wire) system at the linear accelerator (linac) of the Spallation Neutron Source (SNS). A new light source based on diodepumped solid-state laser amplifiers has been developed to provide near diffraction-limited laser beam with a variety of pulse structures. The free-space optical transport line has been modified to include image relay optics with remote control, which greatly improved the laser beam quality and position stability at individual measurement stations. The upgraded system enables novel beam diagnostics/control capabilities including longitudinal profile measurement and high-energy proton beam extraction from the SNS linac.

Liu, Yun↗

DOE OSTI2023

Probabilistic Risk Assessment of a Light Water Reactor Coupled with a High-Temperature Electrolysis Hydrogen Production Plant

This paper presents recent updates on the Level 1 Probabilistic Risk Assessment (PRA) of Light Water Reactors (LWRs) coupled with a hydrogen production plant. It provides the overview of past results on the PRA for Pressurized Water Reactors (PWRs) and Boiling Water Reactors (BWRs) coupled to a 1150 MW High Temperature Electrolysis Facility (HTEF), as well as the latest research results for a smaller 100 MW HTEF facility. Differences between the two HTEF designs are listed. Key differences include the amount and quality of diverted LWR steam, complexity of the Heat Extraction System (HES), and the electrical power source for the HTEF plant. A Failure Mode and Effect Analysis (FMEA) was conducted for the new HTEF design, and the LWR PRA models were modified in the SAPHIRE risk assessment tool to account for the newly identified risk contributors. These include the steam loss event at the HES system, the electrical overcurrent event at the HTEF facility and at the transmission line from the LWR plant, and the hydrogen detonation event at the HTEF facility. The coupling of LWRs with a 100 MW HTEF increases the frequency of several initiating events. For the reference PWR, the largest frequency increase is for the steam line break event at 5.5%. While for the reference BWR, the largest frequency increase is for the switchyard-related Loss of Offsite Power (LOOP) event at 0.11%. The overall plant risk increases by 6.56% and 0.03% for PWR and BWR reference plants respectively. It is found that these risk metrics satisfy the safety criteria of both 10 CFR 50.59 and Regulatory Guide 1.174 licensing pathways.

08 HYDROGEN↗

DOE OSTI2023

Remarkable heat conduction mediated by non-equilibrium phonon polaritons

Surface waves can lead to intriguing transport phenomena. In particular, surface phonon polaritons (SPhPs), which result from coupling between infrared light and optical phonons, have been predicted to contribute to heat conduction along polar thin films and nanowires. However, experimental efforts so far suggest only very limited SPhP contributions. Through systematic measurements of thermal transport along the same 3C-SiC nanowires with and without a gold coating on the end(s) that serves to launch SPhPs, here we show that thermally excited SPhPs can substantially enhance the thermal conductivity of the uncoated portion of these wires. The extracted pre-decay SPhP thermal conductance is more than two orders of magnitude higher than the Landauer limit predicted on the basis of equilibrium Bose–Einstein distributions. Here, we attribute the notable SPhP conductance to the efficient launching of non-equilibrium SPhPs from the gold-coated portion into the uncoated SiC nanowires, which is strongly supported by the observation that the SPhP-mediated thermal conductivity is proportional to the length of the gold coating(s). The reported discoveries open the door for modulating energy transport in solids by introducing SPhPs, which can effectively counteract the classical size effect in many technologically important films and improve the design of solid-state devices.

42 ENGINEERING↗

DOE OSTI2021

Single-particle scattering spectroscopy: fundamentals and applications

Metallic nanoparticles supporting a localized surface plasmon resonance have emerged as promising platforms for nanoscopic labels, sensors, and (photo-) catalysts. To use nanoparticles in these capacities, and to gain mechanistic insight into the reactivity of inherently heterogeneous nanoparticles, single-particle characterization approaches are needed. Single-particle scattering spectroscopy has become an important, highly sensitive tool for localizing single plasmonic nanoparticles and studying their optical properties, local environment, and reactivity. In this review, we discuss approaches taken for collecting the scattered light from single particles, their advantages and disadvantages, and present some recent applications. We introduce techniques for the excitation and detection of single-particle scattering such as high-angle dark-field excitation, total internal reflection dark-field excitation, scanning near-field microscopy, and interferometric scattering. We also describe methods to achieve polarization-resolved excitation and detection. We then discuss different approaches for scanning, ratiometric, snapshot, and interferometric hyperspectral imaging techniques used to extract spectral information. Finally, we provide a brief overview of specialized setups for in situ measurements of nanoparticles in liquid systems and setups coupled to scanning tip microscopes.

71 CLASSICAL AND QUANTUM MECHANICS, GENERAL PHYSIC↗