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DOE OSTI2025

Infrastructure and resource development needs to support a significant expansion of US nuclear capacity

In December 2023, the United States pledged at a United Nations conference to triple nuclear energy by 2050. In May of 2025 a new administration announced plans to quadruple nuclear energy by 2025, setting a new target that requires understanding the key infrastructure and resources needed to achieve large-scale deployment. This study attempts to quantify “what it takes” to deploy an additional 200 GWe of nuclear capacity. It projects demand levels for workforce, fuel, uranium mining and enrichment, waste management, supply chain, land, licensing, and water. Demand growth is also contextualized. For example, the peak number of construction workers required is approximately 215,000, a 37 % increase in the current US utility construction workforce. Up to 80,000 MT/year of mined uranium will be needed, necessitating a 60-fold increase in US mining production or a doubling of global mining if sourced externally. Advanced reactor fuels, uranium mining, and nuclear-grade equipment production would need substantial expansion. Operational workforce, enrichment needs, and licensing submissions also face significant increases. Although water consumption may see relatively lower increases, securing water rights poses unique challenges. This study consolidates various demand metrics in a broad context, highlighting the necessity of early preparations, such as workforce training, to support a tripling of nuclear energy. While it outlines the demand-side requirements, it does not assess the difficulties of ramping up or other supply-side issues. The findings also shed light on the impact of reactor size and reactor technology on various demand metrics.

29 ENERGY PLANNING, POLICY, AND ECONOMY↗

DOE OSTI2023

A diffusion–deformation model with damage for polymer undergoing rapid decompression failure

Green hydrogen is emerging as one of the most promising alternatives to replace fossil fuels. While hydrogen gas has a good energy density by weight, its poor energy density by volume requires it to be stored under high pressure for commercial use. The hydrogen infrastructure developed to handle this high pressure hydrogen contains multiple components made of polymers as sealing agents. Although polymers do not react chemically with hydrogen gas, they undergo a mechanical failure when high pressure hydrogen gas is suddenly depressurized. This phenomenon known as 'rapid decompression failure' occurs due to the diffusion of hydrogen through polymer and getting trapped inside pre-existing cavities or voids. Here, in this paper, a continuum mechanics-based coupled diffusion-deformation-damage model was developed to predict the hydrogen distribution, stress distribution, and damage propagation inside the polymer while it undergoes rapid decompression failure. The polymer was modeled as a hyperelastic material because it represents the nonlinear material response observed in uniaxial tensile tests perfectly. The effects of hydrogen diffusivity, pre-existing cavity size, cavity location, applied hydrogen pressure, and depressurization rate on damage initiation were studied. It was found that the coefficient of diffusion plays an important role in damage initiation and damage was mostly concentrated in the inside areas rather than near the surface. Experiments were conducted with EPDM polymer which agreed well with the predicted trends using the given model. The effect of adding carbon black and silica filler particles and plasticizer to the pure EPDM polymer was also studied. It was found that damage during RDF decreases with the addition of fillers, but increases with the addition of the plasticizer. Finally, the damage evolution in the presence of two cavities was also studied, and was found that the interaction of stress fields around the cavities alters the damage occurring during RDF.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗

DOE OSTI2022

Clean energy technology pathways from research to commercialization: Policy and practice case studies

Clean energy research and development (R and D) leading to commercial technologies is vital to economic development, technology competitiveness, and reduced environmental impact. Over the past 30 years, such efforts have advanced technology performance and reduced cost by leveraging network effects and economies of scale. After demonstrating promise in applied R and D, successful clean energy and energy efficiency technologies are incorporated into an initial product sold by the private sector. Despite its importance, processes by which first commercialization occurs are difficult to generalize while capturing specific insights from practitioners in markets and technologies. This paper presents a policy-focused qualitative assessment of the first commercialization of four diverse energy technologies: thin film photovoltaics, wind turbine blades, dual-stage refrigeration evaporators, and fuel cells for material handling equipment. Each technology presents distinct value propositions, markets, and regulatory drivers. The case studies indicate three common characteristics of successful first commercialization for new energy technologies: 1) good fit between the technology, R&D infrastructure, and public-private partnership models; 2) high degree of alignment of government regulations and R&D priorities with market forces; and 3) compatibility between time scales required for R&D, product development, and opportunities. These findings may inform energy investment decision-making, maximize benefits from R&D, and advance the transition to a low-emission future.

29 ENERGY PLANNING, POLICY, AND ECONOMY↗

DOE OSTI2026

Heat Loss Effects on Emissions in an NH 3 RRQL Combustor

Ammonia (NH 3 ) is a carbon-free energy carrier with an infrastructure for production, storage, and distribution. There is interest in direct NH 3 combustion, but managing pollutant emissions is a key challenge, particularly nitric oxides (NO x ) due to the fuel-bound nitrogen atom, nitrous oxide (N 2 O), which is a potent greenhouse gas, and unburned NH 3 , which is harmful to humans and the environment. Rich staged combustor concepts with extended primary residence times (τ res,primary ), like Rich-Relax- Quick-mix-Lean (RRQL), offer a viable pathway for direct NH 3 combustion with low levels of NO x formation. However, minimizing secondary emissions such as N 2 O and unburned NH 3 and hydrogen (H 2 ) remains a critical challenge. Prior atmospheric-pressure studies have demonstrated that RRQL operation with sufficiently long τ res,primary enables substantial NO x relaxation and promotes NH 3 cracking to H 2 , if heat losses from the relaxation stage are limited. However, the combined influence of elevated pressure and long residence time on RRQL performance has not been explored. The present work examines RRQL operation at pressures up to 5 bar and elevated τ res,primary . Exhaust measurements of NO x , NH 3 , and N 2 O are used to quantify the extent of NO x relaxation and NH 3 cracking under nonadiabatic conditions. To contextualize and quantify the effects of heat losses in the experimental data, chemical reactor networks (CRNs) incorporating prescribed heat loss rates are employed to assess the sensitivity of emissions to thermal losses in the relaxation stage. Collectively, the results demonstrate that management and quantification of heat losses are essential to preserve NO x relaxation and limit NH 3 and N 2 O emissions.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗

DOE OSTI2023

Grand Challenges Revisited: Wind Energy Research Needs for a Global Energy Transition

Wind will be a foundational energy source in the electricity grid at the heart of a future integrated energy system, replacing traditional electricity generators powered by fossil fuels and providing grid reliability services in addition to energy. Future capabilities and functions of the wind energy sector will evolve apace with the future expansion and needs of global energy infrastructure; however, wind turbines designed today will not be able to provide the services needed to form and stabilize the grid as a majority supplier. In 2017, organizers for the IEA Wind Technical Experts Meeting (TEM) #89 Grand Vision for Wind Energy workshop assembled a group of experts to consider the question of how to enable a future in which wind energy supplies more than 50% of global electricity consumption. More than 70 experts representing 15 countries attended the workshop and provided diverse perspectives for the Grand Vision for Wind Energy. The IEA Wind TEM #109 was a subsequent gathering that was convened Feb. 28-March 1, 2023, in Boulder, Colorado, USA. The IEA Wind TEM #109 meeting aimed to bring together the leaders of all working groups and the IEA Wind Technology Collaboration Programme (TCP) to identify gaps in scientific knowledge, design, and deployment practice as well as identify recommendations for collaborative pathways, initiatives, and prioritized long-term research needs that can be addressed by IEA Wind. This report captures the outcomes of this meeting of international experts: five Grand Challenge areas (The Atmosphere, The Turbine, The Plant and Grid, Environmental Co-Design, and Social Science). In addition, meeting participants identified eight crosscutting topic areas that are discusses within this report (Environment-Turbine, Turbine-Atmosphere, Atmosphere-Grid/Plant, Grid/Plant-Turbine, Grid/Plant-Environment, Atmosphere-Environment, Turbine-Social, and Social-Grid/Plant).

17 WIND ENERGY↗

NASA NTRS1999

An Overview of NASA's Current In-Situ Consumable Production (ISCP) Development Activities and Goals

Utilization of extraterrestrial resources, or In-Situ Resource Utilization (ISRU), is viewed as an enabling technology for the exploration and commercial exploitation of our solar system. It is fundamental to any program of extended human presence and operation on other extraterrestrial bodies that we learn how to utilize the indigenous resources. The chief benefits of ISRU are that it can reduce the mass, cost, and risk of robotic and human exploration while providing capabilities that the enable commercial development of space. A key subset of ISRU which has significant cost and risk reduction benefits for robotic and human exploration, and which requires a minimum of infrastructure, is In-Situ Consumable Production (ISCP). ISCP involves acquiring, manufacturing, and storing propellants for planetary ascent or Earth return vehicles, gases and water for crew and life support, and fuel cell reagents for power generation by using resources available at the site of exploration. Since propellant mass typically makes up 60 to 80% of the ascent or Earth return vehicle mass, In-Situ Propellant Production (ISPP) on the Lunar or Mars surface can significantly reduce the overall mass for the return vehicle needed to be brought from Earth. Systems analyses of human Mars missions have indicated that solely producing propellants on the surface of Mars by processing atmospheric carbon dioxide can reduce the initial mission mass required in low Earth orbit by approximately 20% as compared to carrying all required propellant to the Mars surface from Earth. An even greater leverage can occur for Mars missions when in-situ water can be processed.

Sanders, G. B.↗

NASA NTRS1999

An Overview of NASA's current In-Situ Consumable Production (ISCP) Development Activities and Goals

Sanders, G. B.↗

DOE OSTI2023

Heavy-Duty Hydrogen Fueling Station Corridors

Developing zero-emissions fueling corridors requires assessment of technologies that may be utilized in the M/HDV sector. BEVs and FCEVs are leading choices of zero emissions technology and work is required to understand how infrastructure may be deployed and at what cost to facilitate M/HDV decarbonization goals.

class 6↗

DOE OSTI2023

Summary of Consolidated Interim Storage Advantages and Disadvantages from an Integrated Systems Perspective from Prior Reports and Studies

The question of whether centralized storage of civilian spent nuclear fuel (SNF) should be part of the federal waste management system as an intermediate step before permanent disposal has been debated for more than four decades. Centralized storage facilities were included as a potential component of the U.S. spent fuel management system in the Nuclear Waste Policy Act of 1982 (NWPA), but these facilities were not identified as being essential. When the NWPA was passed, it was expected that a permanent repository would be available around the turn of the century to meet the commitments that were made to start accepting waste by that time. For a number of reasons, a permanent repository was not available at that stage. This report summarizes the advantages and disadvantages of including an ISF as part of an integrated waste management system that have been identified in numerous analyses of the impacts of a consolidated interim storage facility (ISF), previously discussed as monitored retrievable storage, the form of ISF authorized in the NWPA) by the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) and independent groups. Storing SNF before disposal is a functional requirement for an integrated waste management system. As described below, the studies reviewed in this report have identified a range of benefits that could be obtained by adding a consolidated ISF to the waste management system, including (1) earlier acceptance of fuel by the federal government, (2) reduction in the number of unintended long-term storage sites, (3) added system flexibility and opportunity for better integration, and (4) near-term development and demonstration of institutional and technical infrastructures for large-scale management of SNF. At the same time, these studies have identified potential drawbacks to deployment of an ISF, including (1) potential adverse impacts on development of a repository, (2) additional transportation of SNF, and (3) a large upfront economic investment to establish the consolidated storage capability. In general, the studies that have considered the positive and negative impacts of consolidated storage most comprehensively have concluded that in light of these considerations, the benefits of including an ISF as part of an integrated waste management system can outweigh any real or perceived disadvantages.

12 MANAGEMENT OF RADIOACTIVE AND NON-RADIOACTIVE W↗

DOE OSTI2020

Implications of climate change mitigation strategies on international bioenergy trade

Most climate change mitigation scenarios rely on increased use of bioenergy to decarbonize the energy system. Here we use results from the 33rd Energy Modeling Forum study (EMF-33) to investigate projected international bioenergy trade for different integrated assessment models across several climate change mitigation scenarios. Results show that in scenarios with no climate policy, international bioenergy trade is likely to increase over time, and becomes even more important when climate targets are set. More stringent climate targets, however, do not necessarily imply greater bioenergy trade compared to weaker targets, as final energy demand may be reduced. However, the scaling up of bioenergy trade happens sooner and at a faster rate with increasing climate target stringency. Across models, for a scenario likely to achieve a 2 °C target, 10–45 EJ/year out of a total global bioenergy consumption of 72–214 EJ/year are expected to be traded across nine world regions by 2050. While this projection is greater than the present trade volumes of coal or natural gas, it remains below the present trade of crude oil. This growth in bioenergy trade largely replaces the trade in fossil fuels (especially oil) which is projected to decrease significantly over the twenty-first century. As climate change mitigation scenarios often show diversified energy systems, in which numerous world regions can act as bioenergy suppliers, the projections do not necessarily lead to energy security concerns. Nonetheless, rapid growth in the trade of bioenergy is projected in strict climate mitigation scenarios, raising questions about infrastructure, logistics, financing options, and global standards for bioenergy production and trade.

09 BIOMASS FUELS↗

DOE OSTI2025

High Pressure Hydrogen Nozzle Assembly and Dispenser for Heavy Duty Vehicles (Final Technical Report)

Electricore, Inc. along with partners Bennett Pump Company (Bennett), WEH Technologies, Inc. (WEH), National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL), and Quong & Associates, Inc. (QAI) have developed a high-pressure hydrogen nozzle assembly and dispenser for heavy-duty (HD) vehicles. The system was installed, tested and demonstrated at NREL’s Hydrogen Infrastructure Testing and Research Facility (HITRF). The system was designed to have a maximum operating pressure of 87.5 MPa and an approximate average flow rate of 10 kg/min over 10 minutes at fuel temperatures of -40°C. To further develop the specifications and design of the system, the team performed an industry survey to ensure the system met the needs of potential users.

08 HYDROGEN↗

DOE OSTI2025

Optimizing Alabama’s CO 2 Storage in Shelby County (Project OASIS): Task 6.0 Deliverable – CarbonSAFE Phase III Readiness

The OASIS CarbonSAFE Phase II Project OASIS (Optimizing Alabama’s CO 2 Storage in Shelby County) is a geologic and reservoir characterization study designed to evaluate deep saline formations for potential long-term carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) storage in central Alabama near the National Carbon Capture Center (NCCC) and Alabama Power’s Plant Gaston. The project centers on understanding the potential of the Cambro-Ordovician Knox Group and underlying strata such as the Conasauga and Rome Formations for geologic storage of CO 2 . These formations were investigated as part of SECARB-USA (DE-FE0031830) and Project OASIS through the drilling of two stratigraphic test wells to obtain electronic well logs, core, and sidewall core plugs. These data provide direct measurements of porosity, permeability, and lithologic variability critical for reservoir characterization. Complementing the well program, a limited 2D seismic survey was conducted to help select the site for Westover #2 as part of SECARB-USA (DE-FE0031830), and a more regional Seismic Exchange (SEI) seismic survey was licensed and interpreted to define structural and stratigraphic frameworks in a new Static Earth Model (SEM), map reservoir continuity, and to identify potential sealing intervals. Integrated with geologic and reservoir modeling, these datasets form the basis for evaluating storage capacity, injectivity, and containment. While this document endeavors to provide readers with a high-level overview of Project OASIS activities and its suitability for subsequent CarbonSAFE Phases, such as a Phase III effort. Other project deliverables and milestones will provide more details on individual subjects.

20 FOSSIL-FUELED POWER PLANTS↗

NASA NTRS1991

Mass budget for mining the moons of Mars

The mass budget is detailed for system architectures that use rocket fuels of propellants derived from Deimos and Phobos to transport 10000 ton payloads of exofuel (exoatmospheric fuels) or exomass (exoatmospheric mass) to earth orbits. A point design for the system architecture is used that includes a self-sustaining cycle, which requires no materials from earth, and an infrastructure, which must be emplaced to start the cycle. Both the use of steam rockets and the use of liquid oxygen and liquid hydrogen is examined. It is shown that a system delivering 10000 tons of payload to a highly elliptical earth orbit requires approximately 23000 tons of water for use by nuclear heated steam rockets to effect completely propulsive, round trip maneuvers. It is also shown that about 8000 tons will be available for sale at low earth orbit, each cycle, and that the number of cycles can number in the tens before critical components are replaced.

Zuppero, Anthony↗

NASA NTRS2017

NASA's Kilopower Reactor Development and the Path to Higher Power Missions

The development of NASAs Kilopower fission reactor is taking large strides toward flight development with several successful tests completed during its technology demonstration trials. The Kilopower reactors are designed to provide 1-10 kW of electrical power to a spacecraft which could be used for additional science instruments as well as the ability to power electric propulsion systems. Power rich nuclear missions have been excluded from NASA proposals because of the lack of radioisotope fuel and the absence of a flight qualified fission system. NASA has partnered with the Department of Energy's National Nuclear Security Administration to develop the Kilopower reactor using existing facilities and infrastructure to determine if the design is ready for flight development. The 3-year Kilopower project started in 2015 with a challenging goal of building and testing a full-scale flight prototypic nuclear reactor by the end of 2017. As the date approaches, the engineering team shares information on the progress of the technology as well as the enabling capabilities it provides for science and human exploration.

Kilopower↗

NASA NTRS2017

NASA's Kilopower Reactor Development and the Path to Higher Power Missions

The development of NASA's Kilopower fission reactor is taking large strides toward flight development with several successful tests completed during its technology demonstration trials. The Kilopower reactors are designed to provide 1-10 kW of electrical power to a spacecraft which could be used for additional science instruments as well as the ability to power electric propulsion systems. Power rich nuclear missions have been excluded from NASA proposals because of the lack of radioisotope fuel and the absence of a flight qualified fission system. NASA has partnered with the Department of Energy's National Nuclear Security Administration to develop the Kilopower reactor using existing facilities and infrastructure to determine if the design is ready for flight development. The 3-year Kilopower project started in 2015 with a challenging goal of building and testing a full-scale flight prototypic nuclear reactor by the end of 2017. As the date approaches, the engineering team shares information on the progress of the technology as well as the enabling capabilities it provides for science and human exploration.

Kilopower↗

DOE OSTI2021

City Decision Analysis Resources and Tools

The City Decision Analysis at Any Scale Workshop was held February 17-18, 2021. This brochure was created to provide participants with a collection of tools and resources that support planning and implementation of clean energy goals for communities and businesses.

ACES↗

DOE OSTI2020

Batteries Annual Progress Report (FY2019)

The Vehicle Technologies Office (VTO) of the Department of Energy (DOE) conducts research and development (R&D) on advanced transportation technologies that would reduce the nation’s use of imported oil and would also lead to reductions in harmful emissions. Technologies supported by VTO include electric drive components such as advanced energy storage devices (primarily batteries), power electronics and electric drive motors, advanced structural materials, energy efficient mobility systems, advanced combustion engines, and fuels. VTO is focused on funding early-stage high-reward/high-risk research to improve critical components needed for more fuel efficient (and cleaner-operating) vehicles. One of the major VTO objectives is to enable U.S. innovators to rapidly develop the next generation of technologies that achieve the cost, range, and charging infrastructure necessary for the widespread adoption of plug-in electric vehicles (PEVs). An important prerequisite for the electrification of the nation’s light duty transportation sector is development of more cost-effective, longer lasting, and more abuse-tolerant PEV batteries. One of the ultimate goals of this research, consistent with the current vehicle electrification trend, is an EV which can provide the full driving performance, convenience, and price of an internal combustion engine (ICE) vehicle. To achieve this, VTO has established the following overarching goal (Source: FY2021 Congressional Budget Justification1): …identify new battery chemistry and cell technologies with the potential to reduce the cost of electric vehicle battery packs by more than half, to less than $100/kWh (ultimate goal is $60/kWh battery cell cost), increase range to 300 miles, and decrease charge time to 15 minutes or less by 2028. VTO works with key U.S. automakers through the United States Council for Automotive Research (USCAR) – an umbrella organization for collaborative research consisting of Fiat Chrysler Automobiles (FCA), the Ford Motor Company, and General Motors. Collaboration with automakers through the partnership known as U.S. Driving Research and Innovation for Vehicle Efficiency and Energy Sustainability (U.S. DRIVE) attempts to enhance the relevance and the success potential of its research portfolio. VTO competitively selects projects for funding through funding opportunity announcements (FOAs). Directly-funded work at the national laboratories are awarded competitively through a lab-call process. During the past year, VTO continued R&D in support of PEVs. Stakeholders for VTO R&D include universities, national laboratories, other government agencies and industry (including automakers, battery manufacturers, material suppliers, component developers, private research firms, and small businesses). This document summarizes the progress of VTO battery R&D projects supported during the fiscal year 2019 (FY 2019).

25 ENERGY STORAGE↗

DOE OSTI2024

Primer: Physical Factors of Agricultural Production & Climate Change

This white paper is a primer on physical factors that influence agricultural production and associated touchpoints to climate change. Agricultural production (which includes both crop and livestock production) is critical for food security and supports other economic products, such as textiles and generation of fuels for energy. Various physical factors influence agricultural production, including the crop types being cultivated and livestock being raised; land area and quality; water access and control; fertilizers, pesticides, and antibiotics; labor; and infrastructure associated with processing, storage, and transportation. These factors are impacted by climate change in both chronic and acute ways, from changing temperatures and precipitation patterns to increased prevalence of extreme events and diseases. We draw on examples from around the world to show the complex ways that agricultural production factors and climate interact with local capacities to influence regions around the world.

54 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES↗