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NASA NTRS2022

Advancing Solar Energetic Particle Forecasting

With growing interest from the aviation and satellite industries, and for NASA’s upcoming Artemis lunar missions, the need for improved scientific understanding and accurate forecasting of solar energetic particle events has never been stronger. In this paper we discuss the observational, validation and model transition support required to achieve these goals. Well-calibrated, high-quality energetic electron, proton, and ion measurements are essential. Expansions to the fields of view offered by current X-ray, extreme ultraviolet and coronagraph instruments, to obtain increased coverage of the solar corona and heliosphere, from vantage points off the Sun-Earth line, are desired for model input. New observations of suprathermal particles are needed to characterize seed particle distributions and low latency space-based observations of solar radio emissions are also desired. Together, this observational suite should offer high cadence, low latency, reliable and accurate space weather data streams. Consistent, extensive and quantitative model validation is required to assess scientific advancements and pave the way for models transitioning to real-time forecast operations. Model performance and skill should be compared to observations and to current operational forecasting baselines. Finally, resources are required to support the significant effort of transitioning mature models into forecast operations.

solar energetic particles↗
NASA NTRSDate not supplied

NASA’s Evolving Ka-Band Network Capabilities to Meet Mission Demand

Space missions are increasingly demanding higher data rates to support the growth in information-intensive mission operations. This growth is reflected in planned and operational missions from low Earth orbit, such as the upcoming NASA-Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO) Synthetic Aperture Radar (NISAR) and Plankton, Aerosol, Cloud and Ocean Ecosystem (PACE) missions, to the future Artemis lunar campaign, and the recently launched James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) orbiting at the Sun-Earth L2 Lagrange point. JWST was the first L2 mission to be defined as a high data rate mission transmitting at 28 Megabits per second (Mbps), or 270 Gigabits of science data per day. ISRO and PACE anticipate achieving data throughputs of 5-40 Terabits per day. These data rates exceed the capabilities of S-band and X-band frequency allocations and are a key driver for migrating to the 26 GHz Ka-band frequency allocation. The NASA Space Communications and Navigation (SCaN) program has been preparing the networks to support this demand by pursuing critical Ka-band infrastructure. The status of current and evolving network capability, including the Near Space Network’s Initiative for Ka-band Advancement (NIKA), and the Deep Space Network’s Lunar Exploration Upgrades (DLEU), as well as profiling mission usage of Ka-band services, are discussed in detail. The push toward Kaband, is not only an opportunity for increased performance, but alleviates current challenges with contentious and cluttered spectrum access in S- and X-band. The paper provides an overview of these advantages and advanced techniques that optimize its use before the transition to optical communications becomes an imperative. The challenges and potential mitigations for missions considering selection of Ka-band network services are also discussed.

Ka-band↗
NASA NTRS2022

Astrodynamics Convention and Modeling Reference for Lunar, Cislunar, and Libration Point Orbits

The purpose and direction of this document is to provide U.S. government agencies, specifically National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) and Department of Defense (DoD) space related centers, with a foundational summary of astrodynamics concepts for trajectory design, navigation, and operations in the cislunar, lunar, and libration point regions. This document is provided in response to an Interagency Agreement (IAA) between NASA and the National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency (NGA). With applications to these regions of the Earth-Moon system, this document summarizes: the definitions of standard and unique coordinate systems for Positioning, Navigation, Timing and targeting (PNT), transformations between those coordinate frames, definitions of common time systems, a description of numerical integration, description of a widely-used and approximate dynamical model of a three-body system for preliminary analysis and nomenclature definition, description of higher-fidelity models of cislunar space, and the application of these concepts to sample scenarios with a focus on common steps in trajectory and maneuver design for a spacecraft in cislunar space. This information is critical to mission design and navigation far above the geosynchronous orbit region, where lunar perturbations are required to be modeled accurately and consistently but render trajectory design and analysis a complex procedure. Software tools such as the Goddard Space Flight Center (GSFC) open source General Mission Analysis Tool (GMAT) is used as a reference, along with a wide variety of resources constructed by NASA and other government agencies, academia, and industry, for mathematical specifications and practical considerations. This document has been prepared by and under the auspices of NASA. The GSFC Mission Engineering and Systems Analysis (MESA) Division (Code 590) and the Navigation and Mission Design Branch (Code 595) are part of NASA. Their engineers and scientists have expertise in lunar, cislunar, and libration point region trajectory guidance and navigation and timing. NASA GSFC has supported many successful lunar and cislunar missions over the past several decades. These missions include the Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter (LRO), the two Acceleration, Reconnection, Turbulence and Electrodynamics of the Moon’s Interaction with the Sun (ARTEMIS) spacecraft, Transiting Exoplanet Survey Satellite (TESS), Lunar Prospector, Lunar Crater Observation and Sensing Satellite (LCROSS), Clementine, and several Sun-Earth libration point missions such as WIND and Deep Space Climate Observatory (DSCOVR), dating back four decades. NASA GSFC also supports the upcoming Gateway lunar mission, the Artemis Lunar Program and Human Landing Systems, and leads both the Lunar IceCube low thrust mission and concept design for the Lunar Communication Relay and Navigation System (LCRNS).

Lunar, CisLunar, Libration, trajectory dynamics, p↗
NASA NTRS2022

Coronal Polarimetry: Determining the Magnetic Origins of Coronal Mass Ejections

Synopsis: The mechanism for the release of stored magnetic energy in solar eruptions remains a major unsolved problem of Heliophysics. Choosing between triggers requires knowledge of pre-eruptive magnetic fields (B). Although linear polarization in visible/infrared (VIR) coronal emission lines reveals intriguing clues about coronal mass ejection (CME) precursor topology, small telescope apertures limit current capability for measuring vector field. Current coronal observations are insufficient to diagnose 3D coronal magnetic fields in CME precursors. Coronal cavities are the ideal candidates for CME precursor studies. BLOS in cavities is a direct measure of stored magnetic free energy, and the presence and location of topological X-points (reconnection locations) and O-points (circulation of B about axis) distinguish predictions of the flux rope-torus-instability and sheared-arcade-breakout CME models. - Finding: Coronal cavities are ubiquitous throughout the solar cycle, erupt as CMEs, and have coronal polarimetric signatures that distinguish between model predictions. - Recommendation: Coronal cavities should be targeted in a comprehensive multiwavelength study of CME precursors & associated eruption-driving mechanisms. Large ground-based VIR telescopes can measure both coronal magnetic field topology and strength through a combination of the saturated Hanle and BLOS -sensitive Zeeman effects. - Finding: The 4m Daniel K. Inouye Solar Telescope (DKIST) and proposed 1.5m Coronal Solar Magnetism Observatory Large Coronagraph (COSMO-LC) make a major leap forward in VIR coronal sensitivity, enabling measurement of vector B. - Recommendation: A dedicated coronal synoptic telescope with a large field-of-view (i.e., COSMO-LC) is needed to identify the dominant CME driving mechanisms, by measuring coronal magnetic fields from precursor state into eruption. In the UV, a new opportunity has arisen to make use of the strong H I Lyman-α coronal line, which obtains a measurement of B that is independent of the Zeeman effect. - Finding: Small-telescope spectropolarimetric capability in the unsaturated Hanle regime provides an independent and complementary coronal magnetic diagnostic to large ground-based telescope measurements. - Recommendation: The proposed 12-cm Coronal Lyman-α Resonance Observatory (CLARO) spectropolarimetric coronagraph demonstrates a path forward for space-based observations of the coronal magnetic field that should be incorporated into future missions away from the Sun-Earth line (e.g., COMPLETE).

magnetic energy↗
NASA NTRS2022

The Earth's Exosphere and Its Response to Space Weather

Neutral-Plasma charge exchange is a fundamental physical process that occurs ubiquitously across the universe. In geospace, charge exchange occurs in the Earth’s topside ionosphere, polar wind, plasmasphere, inner magnetosphere, and magnetosheath. Past and current space missions have profiled plasma and electromagnetic characteristics in various parts of the Earth’s magnetospheric system. However, observations of the exosphere, i.e., neutrals above 500 km altitude, are still sparse and, in some regions, non-existent, which limits our understanding of the neutral contribution to the overall dynamics of the geospace environment. Cold exospheric neutrals (< 10 eV) play an important role in the Sun-Earth interaction. Variability of exospheric density provides key information of the Earth’s atmospheric loss under dynamic space environment conditions. Various neutral species and their density variations in the polar wind can alter ion outflow patterns, modifying global magnetospheric dynamics. Exospheric neutrals also provide an energy sink for the inner magnetosphere by creating Energetic Neutral Atoms (ENAs) through charge exchange with high-energy ring current ions, which subsequently leave our geospace system unimpeded by magnetic fields. Exospheric neutrals also provide a means to observe the global interaction of the solar wind – magnetosphere, through global imaging of the system via ENAs (e.g., the TWINS and IMAGE missions) and soft X-rays (e.g., the upcoming LEXI and SMILE missions), the byproducts of neutral-plasma charge exchange. In the coming decade, we advocate that our community needs to increase our exploration of the neutral populations in the outermost reaches of the Earth’s atmosphere. It is imperative that we improve both in-situ and remote-sensing technologies for measuring key neutral species in our exosphere. We also encourage dedicated exosphere missions and to stimulate model developments of our exosphere and its interaction with the co-located magnetospheric system and neighboring Ionosphere - Thermosphere - Mesosphere system.

Hyunju Connor↗
NASA NTRSDate not supplied

Effect of Space Radiation on TES Detectors Performance

The Athena mission and its X-IFU instrument (X-ray Integral Field Unit) will be positioned at the Sun-Earth Lagrangian point L1, where it will be subject to solar wind (low flux plasma of 95% protons and 5% alpha particles) with energy below 0.1 MeV, and to galactic cosmic rays and solar flares (energetic protons, alpha particles, and electrons) with energies up to hundreds of MeV for protons and the GeV for heavier ions. Some of these particles will go through the satellite and hit the focal plane assembly and hence the detectors. These detectors will be TES (Transition-edge sensor) microcalorimeters, flown for the first time in such an environment. In order to ensure the performance of this type of detectors throughout the duration of such mission, it is critical to study the impact of the radiation on their behavior. Indeed, although a lot of reference material exist for semiconductor detectors such as CCDs, little is currently known about the impact of radiation on TES detectors. These energetic events could cause local heating or damage to the detectors and affect their performance. In this work, we describe how we designed a test campaign to assess the impact of L1 radiation on TES detectors for Athena/X-IFU-like missions and present the results of the tests. Analyses includes assessing changes in the pulse shapes and energy resolution of the detectors measured at 55 mK after several radiation dose steps performed at 4 K.

Sophie Beaumont↗
NASA NTRSDate not supplied

Attitude Control Approach for Solar Cruiser, a Large, Deep Space Solar Sail

Solar Cruiser is a small satellite Technology Demonstration Mission (TDM) to mature solar sail propulsion technology using a solar sail larger than 1600 square meters, demonstrating performance as a propulsion system and a stable pointing platform for science observations in an artificial halo orbit sunward of the Sun-Earth Lagrange Point 1 (sub-L1). For the “sailcraft” to meet mission ob- jectives, there are several unique attitude control challenges that the Attitude De- termination and Control System (ADCS) must overcome. Large disturbance tor- ques, primarily due to sail deformations coupled with off-sun pointing angles, make it more difficult to maintain adequate controls performance and manage accumulated momentum on the control actuators. The large-amplitude, low- frequency flexible body modes of the sail, in concert with noisy sensors and ac- tuators, make it challenging to mitigate control-structure interactions and main- tain fine pointing capabilities. Stability and control performance during sail de- ployment is complicated by rapidly and widely varying inertias. The Solar Cruiser ADCS effectively addresses these challenges using a simple, traditional control system – including momentum management actuators that use bang- bang control to constrain internal accumulated momentum, a low-pass controls filter and an attitude determination Kalman Filter (KF) that blends multiple star tracker solutions, and a reaction wheel assembly (RWA) with controller gains tuned to specific configurations or inertias. Solar Cruiser’s attitude control ap- proach, and lessons learned from its development, establishes a state of the art of high value to future solar sail missions and other small spacecraft with large de- ployable structures operating in deep space.

solar sail↗
NASA NTRSDate not supplied

Attitude Control Approach for Solar Cruiser, a Large, Deep Space Solar Sail

Solar Cruiser is a small satellite Technology Demonstration Mission (TDM) to mature solar sail propulsion technology using a solar sail larger than 1600 square meters, demonstrating performance as a propulsion system and a stable pointing platform for science observations in an artificial halo orbit sunward of the Sun-Earth Lagrange Point 1 (sub-L1). For the “sailcraft” to meet mission objectives, there are several unique attitude control challenges that the Attitude Determination and Control System (ADCS) must overcome. Large disturbance torques, primarily due to sail deformations coupled with off-sun pointing angles, make it more difficult to maintain adequate controls performance and manage accumulated momentum on the control actuators. The large-amplitude, low-frequency flexible body modes of the sail, in concert with noisy sensors and actuators, make it challenging to mitigate control-structure interactions and maintain fine pointing capabilities. Stability and control performance during sail deployment is complicated by rapidly and widely varying inertias. The Solar Cruiser ADCS effectively addresses these challenges using a simple, traditional control system – including momentum management actuators that use bang-bang control to constrain internal accumulated momentum, a low-pass controls filter and an attitude determination Kalman Filter (KF) that blends multiple star tracker solutions, and a reaction wheel assembly (RWA) with controller gains tuned to specific configurations or inertias. Solar Cruiser’s attitude control approach, and lessons learned from its development, establishes a state of the art of high value to future solar sail missions and other small spacecraft with large deployable structures operating in deep space.

solar sail↗
NASA NTRS2022

Determining Latitudinal Extent of Energetic Electron Precipitation Using MEPED On-Board NOAA/POES

Energetic Electron Precipitation (EEP) from the plasma sheet and the radiation belts ionizes the polar lower thermosphere and mesosphere. EEP increases the production of NO x and HO x , which will catalytically destroy ozone, an important element of atmospheric dynamics. Therefore, measurement of the latitudinal extent of the precipitation boundaries is important in quantifying the atmospheric effects of the Sun-Earth interaction. This study uses measurements by the Medium Energy Proton Electron Detector (MEPED) of six NOAA/POES and EUMETSAT/METOP satellites from 2004 to 2014 to determine the latitudinal boundaries of EEP and their variability with geomagnetic activity and solar wind drivers. Variation of the boundaries for different electron energies and Magnetic Local Time (MLT) is studied. Regression analyses are applied to determine the best predictor variable based on solar wind parameters and geomagnetic indices. The highest correlation was found for the pressure-corrected Dst index when applying a linear regression model. A model of the equatorward EEP boundary is developed separately for three different energy channels, >43, >114, and >292 keV, and for 3 hour MLT sectors. For >43 keV EEP, 80% of the equatorward boundaries predicted by the model are within ±2.2° cgmlat. The model exhibits a solar cycle bias where it systematically exaggerates the equatorward movement of the EEP region during solar minimum. The highest accuracy of the model is found in periods dominated by corotating interaction regions/high speed solar wind streams. The result will be a key element for constructing a model of EEP variability to be applied in atmosphere climate models.

E. M. Babu↗
NASA NTRS2023

DSCOVR: Monitoring Earth's Climate and the Threat of the Sun's Weather

The Deep Space Climate Observatory – DSCOVR – is a satellite orbiting between the Sun and Earth at the first Sun-Earth Lagrange point. The primary mission of DSCOVR is to measure the incoming solar wind conditions and provide these measurements in near real-time, to enable space weather forecasting. DSCOVR also has instruments that can monitor Earth’s climate, by measuring energy reflected and radiated from Earth, and can track levels of ozone, aerosols, clouds, vegetation and ocean properties, and more. Led by scientists Dr Adam Szabo and Dr Alexander Marshak, the project is a joint mission between National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), the US Air Force, and NASA.

DSCOVR↗
NASA NTRSDate not supplied

Reflectivity Control Device (RCD) Roll Momentum Management for Solar Cruiser and Beyond

Reflectivity control devices (RCDs), thin film optical devices that are actuated (by application of a voltage across the device) to control the reflection of sunlight on their surfaces, can effectively enable roll momentum management (MM) of a solar sail operating in deep space, outside any magnetic field. This enables solar sails to maintain adequate attitude control in these challenging environments without sacrificing mission life by using expendables. They were planned and developed for use on Solar Cruiser, operating sunward of the Sun-Earth Lagrange Point 1 (sub-L1) in a propulsion-intensive artificial halo orbit. Located in pairs of panels near the distal end of each of four booms, each articulated at a slight angle out of the sail plane to produce a force tangent to the sail at a large moment arm, the RCDs provide roll torque capabilities by using simple switching logic to determine which panels should be activated (voltage applied) to produce torque in the desired direction. The performance capabilities and constraints of these devices across a range of operating conditions, namely sun-relative attitude, is well characterized, granting designers insight on how to properly size the system and optimize the system and component designs to maximize roll torque per unit area. With an informed design, RCDs can be very effective actuators for managing roll momentum with minimal detrimental system impacts (mass, power, complexity, etc.) on Solar Cruiser and other future deep space solar sail missions.

Andrew F Heaton↗
NASA NTRSDate not supplied

Momentum Management Strategies for Solar Cruiser and Beyond (ISSS 2023)

Solar Cruiser is a small (ESPA-class) satellite Technology Demonstration Mission (TDM) to mature solar sail propulsion technology using a solar sail larger than 1600 square meters, demonstrating performance both as a propulsion system and a stable pointing platform for science observations in an artificial halo orbit sunward of the Sun-Earth Lagrange Point 1 (sub-L1). To ensure attitude control throughout the mission, momentum accumulated on the reaction wheels (RWs) used for attitude control must be managed such that the sailcraft does not lose control due to RW momentum saturation. Momentum builds up on the wheels from environmental disturbance torques caused by solar radiation pressure combined with a center of mass (CM)/center of pressure (CP) offset, deformed sail shape, and an off-sun pointing angle, plus other factors. Solar Cruiser mitigates this momentum build up by utilizing an Active Mass Translator (AMT) that maintains pitch and yaw momentum by trimming the CM/CP offsets, and thrusters to maintain roll momentum. A survey was conducted by the Solar Cruiser team to assess the feasibility and tradeoffs of novel momentum management concepts such as Reflectivity Control Devices (RCD’s), different thruster configurations, and control vanes and other articulated control surfaces. In addition, techniques to reduce disturbance torque buildup, such as reducing boom tip deflections and clock angle control, were assessed. Similar sailcraft momentum management strategies can be used for future missions such as space weather monitoring and Earth magnetotail science missions

Solar Sail↗
NASA NTRS2023

Space Weather Investigation Frontier (SWIFT)

The Space Weather Investigation Frontier (SWIFT) mission will aim at making major discoveries on the three-dimensional structure and dynamics of heliospheric structures that drive space weather. The focus will be on Interplanetary Coronal Mass Ejections (ICMEs) that originate from massive expulsions of plasma and magnetic flux from the solar corona. They cause the largest geomagnetic storms and solar energetic particle events, threatening to endanger life and disrupt technology on Earth and in space. A big current problem, both regarding fundamental solar-terrestrial physics and space weather, is that we do not yet understand spatial characteristics and temporal evolution of ICMEs and that the existing remote-sensing and in-situ observatories are not suited for resolving multi-layered and evolutionary structures in these massive storm drivers. Here, we propose a groundbreaking mission concept study using solar sail technology that, for the first time, will make continuous, in-situ multi-point observations along the Sun-Earth line beyond the Lagrange point L1 (sub-L1). This unique position, in combination with L1 assets, will allow distinguishing between local and global processes, spatial characteristics, temporal evolution, and particle energization mechanisms related to ICMEs. In addition, measurements of the magnetic field in earthbound ICMEs and their sub-structures from the SWIFT location will double the current forecasting lead-times from L1. This concept also paves the way for missions with increasingly longer forecasting lead-times, addressing NASA and NOAA’s space weather goals, as set forth by the Decadal Survey. The objective of this communication is to inform the community of the ongoing effort, including plans to further develop the mission concept, supported by the Heliophysics Flight Opportunities Studies (HFOS) program under NASA’s Research Opportunities in Space and Earth Sciences (ROSES).

M. Akhavan-Tafti↗
NASA NTRSDate not supplied

Evolution of Astrodynamics for Multibody Environments, Numerical Precision and Dynamical Understanding

The innovative nature of dynamical systems theory and its applications in trajectory design enabled many recent missions by opening up new transfer and capture opportunities to meet mission requirements, reduce fuel costs, and address various launch constraints and contingencies. With a combination of proven numerical methods and an advanced understanding of the dynamics, an ‘experienced’ user can rapidly design multibody and cislunar missions such as Lunar IceCube and Artemis/Themis and relatively quickly conceive trajectory concepts for Sun-Earth mission orbits, such as the Space Weather Follow On-L1 Lissajous orbit—one that can be achieved and maintained.

David C Folta↗
NASA NTRSDate not supplied

The Miniaturized Electron Proton Telescope, MERiT onboard Lunar Gateway

The Lunar Gateway or the Gateway, part of NASA’s Artemis program, is a space station orbiting around the moon The cis-lunar Gateway platform provides the opportunity for Heliophysics investigations to advance our knowledge of the coupled Sun-Earth system and the opportunity better understand the radiation environment in order to support and improve crew safety and operations at the Moon and beyond. The Heliophysics Environmental and Radiation Measurement Experiment Suite (HERMES) is a suite of instruments place on the outside of the Habitation and Logistics Outpost ( HALO) monitor the Sun’s radiation environment and space weather. HERMES, led byNASA’s Goddard Space Flight Center, will monitor lower energy solar particles critical to scientific investigations of the Sun including the solar winds. Additional suite of instruments provided by ESA, the European Radiation Sensors Array (ERSA) will complement space weather studies. We report here on the energetic particle instrument, the Minaturized Electron Proton Telescope (MERiT) on board HERMES designed to measure electrons and protons in the energy range ~0.3-9. MeV and ~1-190 MeV in 11 and 20 differential energy channels respectively. MERiT is a solid state detector telescope with the two sensor heads:one looking sunward and the other anti-sunward. MERiT will help advance our understanding of solar energetic particles, low energy cosmic rays and energetic electrons in the magnetospheric tail. We will describe the instrument in details and the science topics it is expected to address. Lunar Gateway is currently expected to launch in 2024

Shri Kanekal↗
NASA NTRS2023

An Updated Geomagnetic Index-Based Model for Determining the Latitudinal Extent of Energetic Electron Precipitation

Energetic Electron Precipitation (EEP) from the Earth's plasma sheet and the radiation belts is an important feature of atmospheric dynamics through their destruction of ozone in the lower thermosphere and mesosphere. Therefore, understanding the magnitude of the atmospheric impact of the Sun-Earth interaction requires a comprehensive understanding of the intensity and location of EEP. This study improves the accuracy of a previous pressure-corrected Dst model that predicts the equatorward extent of >43, >114, and >292 keV EEP using the measurements from the Medium Energy Proton Electron Detector detector of six National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration/Polar Orbiting Environmental Satellites and EUMETSAT/METOP satellites. The improvement is achieved through multiple linear regression of pressure-corrected Dst and pressure-corrected Ring Current (RC) indices. The RC index mitigates the baseline variation of the Dst index that created an inherent solar cycle bias in the previous model. The new model is then extended to the Southern Hemisphere (SH) after removing the South Atlantic Anomaly longitudes from the data. More than 80% of the residuals lie within ±1.8° Corrected Geomagnetic Latitude (CGMLat) in the Northern Hemisphere and within ±1.98° CGMLat in the SH.

E. M. Babu↗
NASA NTRS2023

Geoeffectiveness of Interplanetary Shocks Controlled By Impact Angles: Past Research, Recent Advancements, and Future Work

Interplanetary shocks are disturbances commonly observed in the solar wind. IP shock impacts can cause a myriad of space weather effects in the Earth’s magnetopause, inner magnetosphere, ionosphere, thermosphere, and ground magnetic field. The shock impact angle, measured as the angle the shock normal vector performs with the Sun-Earth line, has been shown to be a very important parameter that controls shock geoeffectivess. An extensive review provided by Oliveira and Samsonov (2018) summarized all the work known at the time with respect to shock impact angles and geomagnetic activity; however, this topic has had some progress since Oliveira and Samsonov (2018) and the main goal of this mini review is to summarize all achievements to date in the topic to the knowledge of the author. Finally, this mini review also brings a few suggestions and ideas for future research in the area of IP shock impact angle geoeffectiveness.

interplanetary shocks↗
NASA NTRS2000

Multimission Space and Solar Physics Microspacecraft

The solar fields and particles environment and its interaction with planetary magnetospheres are not only of considerable scientific interest, they can impact human endeavors as well.

microspacecraft space weather space physics solar ↗