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At least 451 records · Page 25

Autoignition characteristics of aircraft-type fuels

An investigation was conducted of the ignition delay characteristics of five liquid hydrocarbon fuels in air. The test apparatus developed permitted independent variation and control of temperature, pressure, air flow rate, and fuel/air ratio in order that the effects of each parameter could be investigated independently. All of the fuels tested behaved in a predictable manner, that is, ignition delay time decreased as temperature, pressure, and fuel/air ratio increased. The results for the different fuels tested (Jet-A, MP-4, No. 2 diesel, ERBS, and cetane) were directly comparable, since it can be shown that the fuel spray characteristics from the multiple conical tube injector are relatively insensitive to small changes in fuel properties (viscosity, surface tension, and density).

Spadaccini, L. J.↗

Compatibility of elastomers in alternate jet fuels

The compatibility of elastomeric compositions of known resistance to aircraft fuels was tested for potential use in Jet A type fuels obtainable from alternate sources, such as coal. Since such fuels were not available at the time, synthetic alternate fuels were prepared by adding tetralin to a petroleum based Jet A type fuel to simulate coal derived fuels which are expected to contain higher amounts of aromatic and hydroaromatic hydrocarbons. The elastomeric compounds tested were based on butadiene-acrylonitrile rubber, a castable Thiokol polysulfide rubber, and a castable fluorosilicone rubber. Batches of various cross-link densities of these rubbers were made and their chemical stress relaxation behavior in fuel, air, and nitrogen, their swelling properties, and response to mechanical testing were determined.

Kalfayan, S. H.↗

Putting Fuel Cells to the Test

If research has its way, an electrochemical device capable of converting energy into electricity and heat will become the impetus behind the next generation of automobiles, superseding the internal combustible engine found under the hoods of vehicles that rule the road today. The thought of fuel cell technology being able to accomplish such a feat may be dismissed as too futuristic by some, but the truth is that fuel cells have been in play as a source of propulsion since the 1960s, when NASA first used them to generate power onboard the Gemini and Apollo spacecraft for extended space missions. Even more unknown is the fact that fuel cells were and continue to be a source of drinking water for astronauts in orbit, since they produce pure water as a by-product.

Source record↗

Accelerated test protocols to predict service life and durability of solid oxide fuel cells

Reliable accelerated test protocols are needed for solid oxide fuel cell research to facilitate rapid learning on key durability issues, identify potential modes of failure expeditiously, and eventually predict the calendar lifetime of an electrochemical cell. In this work, solid oxide fuel cells operated at a constant current density were compared to cells undergoing accelerated measurements, which are composed of intermittent current injection to the cell. A general accelerated test profile was developed by cycling a solid oxide fuel cell from open circuit to a predetermined operating current density that is the same as the current density during a steady-state operation, to accelerate the local redox environment. The following parameters were studied: current density, operation temperature, moist level, sintering temperature, cycling current, cycling frequency, and operation time. Up to 1,320,000 cycles were generated in this work. The cell degradation was accelerated by nearly 10 times, suggesting the feasibility of using this protocol for acceleration test to predict life performance and durability of solid oxide fuel cells.

08 HYDROGEN↗

Design and testing of an enriched uranium fueled molten salt irradiation vehicle

Molten salt reactors (MSRs) have garnered increasing attention recently with several demonstration efforts on the way. A key challenge to the licensing basis for these reactors is the lack of experimental data on fueled salts. This is expected to be crucial to the safety evaluation and licensing basis of reactors of this type deployed in the future. While capability for irradiating molten salts has started being reestablished in the recent decade, no enriched fuel irradiation capability has been developed and tested as of yet. A new experiment vehicle under development at Idaho National Laboratory (INL) is presented here. The Molten-salt Research Temperature-controlled Irradiation (MRTI) experiment was developed to host enriched-uranium bearing salt samples to be irradiated at a test reactor within the lab complex. One of the key scientific objectives is to provide irradiated salt samples for post irradiation examination (PIE) to study the impact of fission product generation and neutron/gamma radioactivity on the salt solution and salt-facing wall material. This paper provides a detailed overview of the mechanical design of the experiment, followed by an overview of the fabrication and assembly of an initial prototype vehicle (with non-fuel bearing salt). A summary of the key analyses conducted as a part of the performance and safety evaluation is then provided. Lastly, an overview of the test conducted in prototypic out-of-pile (non-neutron) environment are shown. These evaluations provide the foundation for a planned irradiation of and enriched uranium-bearing chloride salt sample in the near term. The upcoming irradiation will contain 13cm 3 of UCl 3 -NaCl salt (93% enrichment) generating around 20 W/cm 3 of fission energy during irradiation and a temperature range that can be contained between bounds of 525-900°C.

22 GENERAL STUDIES OF NUCLEAR REACTORS↗

Radial Deconsolidation Leach-Burn-Leach of Five AGR-3/4 TRISO Fuel Compacts after Post-Irradiation Heating Tests

Five AGR-3/4 fuel compacts were previously heated in the Fuel Accident Condition Simulator (FACS) furnace. Three of these compacts were also reirradiated in the Neutron Radiography (NRAD) reactor before the FACS tests. One of these was heated to 1200°C, two were heated to 1400°C, one was heated to 1600°C, and one was held for a period of time at 1600 and 1700°C. After these FACS tests, the compacts were subjected to destructive post-irradiation examination (PIE) via radial-deconsolidation-leach-burn-leach (RDLBL) at INL. The RDLBL process deconsolidated the compacts in multiple radial steps, followed by a final, single-step axial deconsolidation. The samples generated at each step were analyzed for isotopes of key fission products and actinides. After each deconsolidation step, the compact volume was assessed, and this was used to normalize the measured quantities of nuclides of interest to give volumetric concentrations as a function of radial position within the compact. The total inventories of measured fission products and actinides and the radial concentration profiles were compared with their sibling compacts within the same capsule (similar irradiation conditions) that went through RDLBL in the as-irradiated state. These data will be used to refine the fission product transport models.

11 NUCLEAR FUEL CYCLE AND FUEL MATERIALS↗

Post-irradiation Heating Tests of As-Irradiated AGR-3/4 TRISO Fuel Compacts

Four post-irradiation heating tests of fuel compacts from the U.S. Advanced Gas Reactor (AGR)-3/4 irradiation experiment were completed. In addition to tristructural isotropic (TRISO)-coated driver fuel, each compact contained designed-to-fail (DTF) particles with fuel kernels coated only in pyrocarbon so as to simulate exposed kernels. Tests at 1600/1700°C, 1400°C, and 1200°C were performed to measure fission product release as a function of time and temperature. Silver release was highest in the 1200°C test, supporting the observation that silver release rates are highest in the 1100–1300°C range. Compared to tests of AGR-1 compacts with no exposed kernels, the Cs-134 and Kr-85 releases were noticeably higher in AGR-3/4. The exposed kernels’ contributions to Eu and Sr release are inconclusive, due to the difficulty in distinguishing among the combined effects of higher irradiation temperatures in these particular AGR-3/4 compacts, the presence of the DTF particles, and the Fuel Accident Condition Simulator (FACS) test temperatures. These data can be used to make inferences about fission product retention in exposed kernels as a function of time and temperature.

11 NUCLEAR FUEL CYCLE AND FUEL MATERIALS↗

Hydrophobicity of Cryogenic Fluids for Fuel Transfer in Space Applicaitons

Introduction Hydrophobicity is the tendency of a fluid to repel another material or fluid. Hydrophobiciy can be measured through the wetting angle of the fluid on the surface of the other material. The greater the wetting angle, the more hydrophobic the surface is against the fluid. Hydrophobicity properties can be caused by one of two means, either through physical properties or chemical properties [\citenum{NARBUTT2020121}]. Physical hydrophobicity due to the surface of a solid creating surface roughness/patterning, minimizing the contact area between the fluid and the surface. This can be observed throughout nature, such as the surface of lotus leaves or butterfly wings. This physical property can be induced on a variety of surfaces, namely through laser etching, allowing a surface to be finely lineated to imitate these natural surfaces while controlling quantity, depth, and patterns of the etching on the surface [\citenum{10.1063/1.4905616}]. Physical hydrophobicity is therefore dependent on several variables, including the surface that the fluid is on and properties of the fluid itself, such as density and surface tension, both of which are dependent on temperature and/or pressure. Chemical hydrophobicity [\citenum{MadeiraHydrophobocicicici}] is due to the inherent chemical properties of the materials being used. This is most commonly due to the molecular structures changing the polarity of the materials. Depending on a nonpolar material will repel a polar material, proving to be hydrophobic, conversely if the polarity of the materials is the same (polar – polar, nonpolar – nonpolar), they will attract each other. Cryogenics refers to the behavior of materials at very low temperatures (<\ang{-100} C) [\citenum{ZOHURI20181}]. In space applications many things are inherently cryogenic, therefore this is an important field. There has been little research in how hydrophobicity changes at cryogenic temperatures. Cryogenic fluids are commonly used as fuels for spacecraft, therefore, integrating a hydrophobic surface can increase the transfer rate of the fuel. To test this, several experiments were set up to determine the hydrophobic properties of cryogenic fluids, including nitrogen (LN2), argon (LAr), oxygen (LOx), hydrogen (LH2), and methane (CH4), at cryogenic temperatures. Etched Wafer Testing A silicon wafer cut from a crystal of silicon [100] was used to model the potential hydrophobicity of various cryogenic fluids. Silicon [100] references to the crystallographic orientation of the silicon crystals in the wafer. These wafers were then laser etched to create a surface that is more likely to be hydrophobic. To test the hydrophobicity of the wafers at cryogenic temperatures, the temperatures of the wafers must be reduced to the same temperature as the cryogenic fluid being used to prevent rapid boil-off. To achieve this a double-walled vacuum insulated glass chamber was utilized. The chamber is open, with a double-walled glass that can be placed in a vacuum to remove condensation from the outside to allow easier viewing of the experiment. Furthermore, the silicon wafer's temperature must be lowered to the temperature of LN2, as well as maintain the temperature throughout the experiment. To achieve this a piece of 6061 aluminum was used, creating a stand-off for the wafer and it would allow for the insulation of the temperature of the wafers. The container was then filled with LN2 and once the LN2 stabilized the vaporization and the levels of LN2 dropped under the height of the wafer, the wafer was then allowed to air dry. Once the wafer was dry from the LN2, drops of LN2 were placed on the surface of the wafer for observation. During the first trial, the LN2 that was dropped on the surface displayed nonhydrophobic behaviors, spreading out along the surface, with a minimal wetting angle (too small to be measured). This process was repeated for liquid argon. Further testing with other cryogenic liquids will require different testing apparatuses due to being more volatile. Furthermore, several papers [\citenum{voltvolt7}] have suggested that running a voltage can induce a hydrophobic effect throughout a surface, further testing will include a voltage (constant and oscillating) to determine if voltage influences inducing hydrophobicity at cryogenic temperatures. Chemical Testing Coating the interior walls of the fuel tanks and fuel lines can successfully create a hydrophobic surface. The inherent problem is finding a material that can be used to coat the surface, furthermore, at these temperatures, the coating will remain solid, which could pose issues in maintaining the hydrophobic properties. To test this water (polar) is hydrophobic against oils and fats (nonpolar), therefore the same experiment as the etched wafer testing was conducted to determine if the hydrophobic properties will persist as the nonpolar material remains solid and the polar material remains a fluid. The water remained hydrophobic, allowing testing can expand to the cryogenic fluids. However, another hurdle is faced in finding a chemically opposite material to the cryogenic fluids being tested. As many of the cryogenic fluids being tested are diatomic, they are inherently nonpolar, therefore, the material used for the hydrophobic coating must be polar. Polar greases and lubricants are difficult to come by, however, lithium stearate, appears to be a potential candidate for creating a coated hydrophobic surface for cryogenic fluids at cryogenic temperatures.

Cryogenics↗

M&C 2025: Application of Fuel Depletion Chain Simplification to Experiment Analysis in the Advanced Test Reactor

Irradiation experiment analysis can be informed by high-fidelity reactor engineering depletion results, but it comes at a computational cost. Applying depletion chain simplification to the Advanced Test Reactor driver fuel before performing experiment depletions permits their programmatic parameters to be calculated faster, with a small penalty to accuracy. This work contrasts the results of two irradiation experiments with different neutronic characteristics and provides general recommendations.

11 - NUCLEAR FUEL CYCLE AND FUEL MATERIALS↗

A Historical Review of Cermet Fuel Development and the Engine Performance Implications

This paper reviews test data for cermet fuel samples developed in the 1960's to better quantify Nuclear Thermal Propulsion (NTP) cermet engine performance, and to better understand contemporary fuel testing results. Over 200 cermet (W-UO2) samples were tested by thermally cycling to 2500 deg (2770 K) in hydrogen. The data indicates two issues at high temperatures: the vaporization rate of UO2 and the chemical stability of UO2. The data show that cladding and chemical stabilizers each result in large, order of magnitude improvements in high temperature performance, while other approaches yield smaller, incremental improvements. Data is very limited above 2770 K, and this complicates predictions of engine performance at high Isp. The paper considers how this material performance data translates into engine performance. In particular, the location of maximum temperature within the fuel element and the effect of heat deposition rate are examined.

Ceramic Nuclear Fuel↗

Rotating Detonation Combustion for Gas Turbines: Modeling and System Synthesis to Exceed 65% Efficiency Goal (Phase II)

As of May 2019, all RDE test hardware and test operations were completed for this program. Over 700 hot fire tests were conducted at 4 facilities with 7 RDE assemblies, with the data available for future analysis. In particular, measured static and dynamic pressure and computational fluid dynamics (CFD) provided basis for pressure gain combustion (PGC) analysis of the Engineering Scale RDE. It was demonstrated via measurements and CFD that a carefully designed diffuser can recover some total pressure of the highly oscillatory RDE exhaust. In general, the isolator/injector is largest contributor of pressure losses; however a low loss design was demonstrated that improves significantly on previous natural-gas/air RDEs. Also, a tailored injector and mixing technique was demonstrated that allowed NG-air RDE operation with overall equivalence ratio of less than 0.6. CFD models by AR, the UofM and Purdue University were extensively used throughout the program to refine diffuser design for improved pressure recovery, to simulate injection and mixing, to estimate turbine interaction, to estimate combustor pressure gain anchored with test data and to provide input to other design and analytical tasks. CFD analyses were completed for many of the configurations tested at Purdue with the 13.4” RDE including the shark fin and low area ratio isolators. Results were compared favorably to available hot fire test particle image velocimetry (PIV) measurements and wave speeds. The results of these CFD analyses suggest a modest pressure gain of 33% with a sufficiently low area ratio isolator. A thermodynamic power plant system model was set up which utilizes an RDE combustor. The performance of the RDE combustor module was scaled based on measurements from the Engineering Scale RDE tests with low loss injector and tailored fuel flow. This combined model indicates potential for significant plant efficiency improvement. The successful tailored fuel injection test result with lower than .6 equivalence ratio has implication that a power plant can use a RDE combustor configuration where all the air flows through the combustion zone thereby not requiring a bypass mixer. In this configuration, the results of the natural gas combined cycle (NGCC) plant system indicate net efficiency of 66.4%.

02 PETROLEUM↗

Automotive Stirling engine development program

Activities performed on Mod I engine testing and test results, testing of the Mod I engine in the United States, Mod I engine characterization and analyses, Mod I Transient Test Bed fuel economy, upgraded Mod I performance and testing, Stirling engine reference engine manufacturing and reduced size studied, components and subsystems, and the study and test of low cost casting alloys are summarized. The overall program philosophy is outlined, and data and results are presented.

Nightingale, N.↗

Test Capabilities of the NASA Langley Direct Connect Supersonic Combustion Test Facility

In 1969 a combustion-heated direct-connect test facility was assembled at the NASA Langley Research Center and used to support NASA’s Hypersonic Research Engine program. Later, the facility was used to support NASA’s generic hypersonic program, assessing the mixing, ignition, flame holding, and combustion characteristics of ramjet and scramjet combustors. Over the years, the facility has been updated and modified to conduct increasingly complicated tests. Today, the facility is known as the Direct Connect Supersonic Combustion Test Facility (DCSCTF) and is part of the NASA Langley Scramjet Test Complex. Recently, the facility has been used by external customers to test fuel-cooled and uncooled, flight-like test articles. Tests have been conducted at nominal Mach 5 flight conditions for up to 15 minutes of continuous operation. The facility remains a viable and useful tool in the support of various Department of Defense projects.

Diego P Capriotti↗

Test Capabilities of the NASA Langley Direct Connect Supersonic Combustion Test Facility with Historical Perspective

In 1969, a combustion-heated direct-connect test facility was assembled at the NASA Langley Research Center to conduct basic research in ramjet and scramjet propulsion systems. The facility was initially used in assessing the mixing, ignition, flame holding, and combustion characteristics of various ramjet and scramjet combustors. Over the years, the facility was updated and modified to conduct increasingly longer and more complicated tests. Today, the facility is known as the Direct Connect Supersonic Combustion Test Facility and is part of the NASA Langley Scramjet Test Complex. More recently, the facility has been used by external customers to test fuel-cooled and uncooled, flight-like test articles. Tests have been conducted at ramjet flight conditions for up to 15 minutes of continuous operation. Even though the facility is nearly 50 years old, it remains a viable and useful tool in the support of various U.S. hypersonic programs.

direct connect test facility↗

Diesel Oxidation Catalyst Performance with Biodiesel Formulations

Biodiesel (i.e., mono-alkyl esters of long chain fatty acids derived from vegetable oils and animal fats) is a renewable diesel fuel providing life-cycle greenhouse gas emission reductions relative to petroleum-derived diesel. With the expectation that there would be widespread use of biodiesel as a substitute for ultra-low sulfur diesel (ULSD), there have been many studies looking into the effects of biodiesel on engine and aftertreatment, particularly its compatibility to the current aftertreatment technologies. The objective of this study was to generate experimental data to measure the effectiveness of a current technology diesel oxidation catalysts (DOC) to oxidize soy-based biodiesel at various blend levels with ULSD. Biodiesel blends from 0 to 100% were evaluated on an engine using a conventional DOC. In the steady-state performance test where fuel dosing rate was increased at fixed DOC inlet temperature, B20 performed similarly to ULSD at the lowest flow rate or exhaust temperature over 340 degrees C for medium and high flows. B50 blends performed nearly as well under most conditions. Higher blends exhibited reduced thermal efficiency and DOC outlet temperature with increasing dosing rate under most conditions and required exhaust temperatures over 400 degrees C to achieve or nearly achieve performance similar to ULSD. In the steady-state light of test where fuel dosing rate is fixed but exhaust temperature is increased incrementally, B20 generally performed similarly to ULSD at the highest inlet temperature, with only minor deficiencies at lower temperatures. Higher blends exhibited lower thermal efficiency and did not achieve as high DOC outlet temperatures. In the transient light-off test light-off temperature for ULSD was typically less than 225 degrees C, while for B100 it ranged from 290 degrees C to 330 degrees C. Based on the data set, it can be concluded that biodiesel fuels have a higher light-off temperature primarily because of their higher boiling points, with a minor secondary impact of their lower energy content.

ADVANCED PROPULSION SYSTEMS,BIOMASS FUELS↗

Improved ASTM G72 Test Method for Ensuring Adequate Fuel-to-Oxidizer Ratios

The ASTM G72/G72M-15 Standard Test Method for Autogenous Ignition Temperature of Liquids and Solids in a High-Pressure Oxygen-Enriched Environment is currently used to evaluate materials for the ignition susceptibility driven by exposure to external heat in an enriched oxygen environment. Testing performed on highly volatile liquids such as cleaning solvents has proven problematic due to inconsistent test results (non-ignitions). Non-ignition results can be misinterpreted as favorable oxygen compatibility, although they are more likely associated with inadequate fuel-to-oxidizer ratios. Forced evaporation during purging and inadequate sample size were identified as two potential causes for inadequate available sample material during testing. In an effort to maintain adequate fuel-to-oxidizer ratios within the reaction vessel during test, several parameters were considered, including sample size, pretest sample chilling, pretest purging, and test pressure. Tests on a variety of solvents exhibiting a range of volatilities are presented in this paper. A proposed improvement to the standard test protocol as a result of this evaluation is also presented. Execution of the final proposed improved test protocol outlines an incremental step method of determining optimal conditions using increased sample sizes while considering test system safety limits. The proposed improved test method increases confidence in results obtained by utilizing the ASTM G72 autogenous ignition temperature test method and can aid in the oxygen compatibility assessment of highly volatile liquids and other conditions that may lead to false non-ignition results.

Juarez, Alfredo↗

Improved ASTM G72 Test Method for Ensuring Adequate Fuel-to-Oxidizer Ratios

The ASTM G72/G72M-15 Standard Test Method for Autogenous Ignition Temperature of Liquids and Solids in a High-Pressure Oxygen-Enriched Environment is currently used to evaluate materials for the ignition susceptibility driven by exposure to external heat in an enriched oxygen environment. Testing performed on highly volatile liquids such as cleaning solvents has proven problematic due to inconsistent test results (non-ignitions). Non-ignition results can be misinterpreted as favorable oxygen compatibility, although they are more likely associated with inadequate fuel-to-oxidizer ratios. Forced evaporation during purging and inadequate sample size were identified as two potential causes for inadequate available sample material during testing. In an effort to maintain adequate fuel-to-oxidizer ratios within the reaction vessel during test, several parameters were considered, including sample size, pretest sample chilling, pretest purging, and test pressure. Tests on a variety of solvents exhibiting a range of volatilities are presented in this paper. A proposed improvement to the standard test protocol as a result of this evaluation is also presented. Execution of the final proposed improved test protocol outlines an incremental step method of determining optimal conditions using increased sample sizes while considering test system safety limits. The proposed improved test method increases confidence in results obtained by utilizing the ASTM G72 autogenous ignition temperature test method and can aid in the oxygen compatibility assessment of highly volatile liquids and other conditions that may lead to false non-ignition results.

Juarez, Alfredo↗