Engineering Papers⌕ Search

SEARCH · Engineering Papers

Results for “detector design and simulation”

Search indexed NASA NTRS and DOE OSTI research on propulsion, heat transfer, battery materials and energy systems. Follow report and document links to the original sources.

Quote a phrase for an exact phrase match. Source license links do not imply unrestricted reuse.

At least 433 records · Page 24
All sourcesNASA NTRSDOE OSTI
DOE OSTI2026

Refining a Novel Process Monitoring Method to Safeguard Continuously Cycling Designs Using Isotopic Ratios

In advanced reactor (AR) designs, a common feature is continuous chemical processing and circulation of the nuclear material. This work bridges a significant measurement gap in safeguarding reactors with circulating fuel or continuous refueling by leveraging and building on the isotope ratio method first developed by our team under an FY21 Advanced Reactors International Safeguards Engagement (ARISE) project (Uribe et al. 2021). In circulating fuel designs, the radioisotope inventory changes from traditional effects (e.g., radioactive decay, fission) but also includes material transport due to pressure and temperature gradients. Such designs may also require regular or continuous additions or removals during operation, which significantly increases the rate of inventory change compared to traditional pressurized water reactor (PWR)s. Thus, directly tracking the nuclear inventory is ineffective since the isotopes are continuously added and removed. The isotope ratio method instead focuses on detecting changes to the input and output flows of radioisotopes. Previous work showed that for well-chosen pairs of isotopes, the isotopic ratio provides a sensitive and lasting indicator of deviation from normal conditions (e.g., startup, shutdown, diversion). The isotope ratio method is a process monitoring method with potential for application in for forward-looking approaches to International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) safeguards. The original process monitoring method was developed for a specific case—the decay tank of a thorium-fueled molten salt breeder reactor. In this expanded work, we explored other types of reactors and processes with nonstationary (e.g., flowing) nuclear material, which are difficult to safeguard with traditional methods because of the transient nature of the systems. The goal of the present work is to generalize the isotope ratio method for use in processes with continuously flowing nuclear material. All continuous processes have an average time for isotopes to be replaced in the system. The isotope ratio method works by choosing radioisotopes with half-lives both above and below the processing time. The present work seeks to explore which isotopes are suitable for the method by simulating the nuclear inventory, radioisotope emissions, and detector responses for several classes of advanced reactors. While the method can in principle be applied to other processes (e.g., enrichment or reprocessing facilities), the present work limits scope to ARs with continuously flowing fuel. Section 2 details the mathematics supporting the isotope ratio method, and Section 3 introduces the representative ARs selected for this work. Section 4 discusses how each reactor was analyzed, and Section 5 showcases the results for each representative reactor. Finally, Section 6 provides concluding remarks and suggests pathways for further analysis.

98 NUCLEAR DISARMAMENT, SAFEGUARDS, AND PHYSICAL P↗
DOE OSTI2023

The MIGDAL experiment: Measuring a rare atomic process to aid the search for dark matter

We present the Migdal In Galactic Dark mAtter expLoration (MIGDAL) experiment aiming at the unambiguous observation and study of the so-called Migdal effect induced by fast-neutron scattering. It is hoped that this elusive atomic process can be exploited to enhance the reach of direct dark matter search experiments to lower masses, but it is still lacking experimental confirmation. Our goal is to detect the predicted atomic electron emission which is thought to accompany nuclear scattering with low, but calculable, probability, by deploying an Optical Time Projection Chamber filled with a low-pressure gas based on CF 4 . Initially, pure CF 4 will be used, and then in mixtures containing other elements employed by leading dark matter search technologies — including noble species, plus Si and Ge. High resolution track images generated by a Gas Electron Multiplier stack, together with timing information from scintillation and ionisation readout, will be used for 3D reconstruction of the characteristic event topology expected for this process — an arrangement of two tracks sharing a common vertex, with one belonging to a Migdal electron and the other to a nuclear recoil. Different energy-loss rate distributions along both tracks will be used as a powerful discrimination tool against background events. In this article we present the design of the experiment, informed by extensive particle and track simulations and detailed estimations of signal and background rates. In pure CF 4 we expect to observe 8.9 (29.3) Migdal events per calendar day of exposure to an intense D–D (D–T) neutron generator beam at the NILE facility located at the Rutherford Appleton Laboratory (UK). With our nominal assumptions, 5σ median discovery significance can be achieved in under one day with either generator.

46 INSTRUMENTATION RELATED TO NUCLEAR SCIENCE AND ↗
DOE OSTI2024

Conceptual Design of Passive Neutron Albedo Reactivity and Active Neutron Albedo Reactivity Instruments for Various Arrangements of Pebble Bed Reactor Pebbles

MCNP6 simulations were performed to assess the anticipated capability of the Passive Neutron Albedo Reactivity technique for nuclear safeguards measurements of irradiated pebble/pebbles. Two physical setups were examined. One with a single pebble of three different burnups and one with 27 pebbles in a cube. For all cases the sensitivity to removing all the fissile material was examined. For both of the physical setups, 4 assay cases were examined: (a) singles count rates for which the only source neutrons were the inherent neutrons in the fuel, (b) singles count rates again except this time two relatively weak AmLi sources were placed above and below the top central pebble and the combined effect of both neutron source terms were examined, (c) doubles count rates for which the only source neutrons were the inherent neutrons in the fuel, and (d) doubles count rates again except this time two relatively weak AmLi sources were placed above and below the top central pebble and the combined effect of both neutron source terms were examined. Finally, a few parameters such as Cd near the 3 He tubes were perturbed to see if the results could be improved.

73 NUCLEAR PHYSICS AND RADIATION PHYSICS↗
DOE OSTI2020

Critical Unresolved Region Integral Experiment Execution

Integral Experiments are a key aspect of validating nuclear data behavior and simulation capabilities. Further, integral experiments are the earliest form of validation of equations and codes. They have been used extensively since the 1940s. Today, simulation and predictive capabilities have improved greatly from 75 years ago, but nonetheless, integral experiments are still needed. As simulation capabilities improve, their uncertainties get much smaller. The current focus of many new experiments is understanding the intermediate energy range. The intermediate energy range does not have a wide application space and it can be challenging to design experiments that are sensitive to neutron energies in this region. The Zeus experiments evaluated highly enriched uranium (HEU) in the intermediate energy region. Building on the success and knowledge gained from the Zeus experiments, the Critical Unresolved Region Integral Experiment (CURIE) experiments were designed to evaluate HEU in the narrower unresolved resonance region (URR). These experiments were executed during June and July 2020 at the National Criticality Experiments Research Center (NCERC). The National Criticality Experiments Research Center (NCERC), operated by Los Alamos National Laboratory, is the only general purpose critical experiments facility in the United States of America. NCERC regularly designs and executes critical experiments and other measurements useful to a wide variety of fields including nuclear criticality safety, commercial nuclear energy, nonproliferation, and nuclear data.

73 NUCLEAR PHYSICS AND RADIATION PHYSICS↗
DOE OSTI2023

Developing new analysis tools for near surface radio-based neutrino detectors

The ARIANNA experiment is an Askaryan radio detector designed to measure high-energy neutrino induced cascades within the Antarctic ice. Ultra-high-energy neutrinos above 10 16 eV have an extremely low flux, so experimental data captured at trigger level need to be classified correctly to retain as much neutrino signal as possible. We first describe two new physics-based neutrino selection methods, or "cuts", (the updown and dipole cut) that extend the previously published analysis to a specialized ARIANNA station with 8 antenna channels, which is double the number used in the prior analysis. For a standard trigger with a threshold signal to noise ratio at 4.4, the new cuts produce a neutrino efficiency of > 95% per station-year of operation, while rejecting 99.93% of the background (corresponding to 53 remaining experimental background events). When the new cuts are combined with a previously developed cut using neutrino waveform templates, all background is removed at no change of efficiency. In addition, the neutrino efficiency is extrapolated to 1,000 station-years of operation, obtaining 91%. This work then introduces a new selection method (the deep learning cut) to augment the identification of neutrino events by using deep learning methods and compares the efficiency to the physics-based analysis. The deep learning cut gives 99% signal efficiency per station-year of operation while rejecting 99.997% of the background (corresponding to 2 remaining experimental background events), which are subsequently removed by the waveform template cut at no significant change in efficiency. Here the results of the deep learning cut were verified using measured cosmic rays which shows that the simulations do not introduce artifacts with respect to experimental data. The paper demonstrates that the background rejection and signal efficiency of near surface antennas meets the requirements of a large scale future array, as considered in baseline design of the radio component of IceCube-Gen2.

97 MATHEMATICS AND COMPUTING↗
DOE OSTI2025

Optimization of the light detection system of the ICARUS detector

The Short Baseline Neutrino (SBN) Program at Fermilab is designed to investigate short-baseline neutrino oscillations and test the hypothesis of sterile neutrinos, motivated by several experimental anomalies observed over the past decades. Within this program, the ICARUS experiment plays a key role. It employs the world’s largest Liquid Argon Time Projection Chamber (LArTPC) and serves as the farthest and most sensitive SBN detector for studying muon and electron neutrino oscillations. A crucial subsystem of the ICARUS detector is the Light Detection System (LDS), which captures the prompt scintillation light produced by neutrino interactions in the 600-ton active liquid Argon volume. This system provides precise timing information that is essential for event reconstruction, the trigger system, and cosmic background rejection. The LDS is composed of 360 Hamamatsu R5912-MOD 8-inch photomultiplier tubes (PMTs), operating under cryogenic conditions ($\sim 87 \ K$) inside the detector’s cryostats. During the detector’s operation at FNAL, a degradation in PMT gain has been observed, attributed to aging under low-temperature conditions. In collaboration with ICARUS teams from INFN Pavia and Catania, I developed an experimental setup to study the temperature-dependent behavior of the PMTs, performing gain measurements both at room temperature and down to $-70°C$ using a climatic chamber at INFN Catania. The results indicate that while the PMTs maintain stable gain at room temperature, a significant and permanent gain reduction occurs at low temperatures. Although $-70°C$ is still warmer than liquid Argon temperatures, the findings clearly demonstrate a gain-dependent performance degradation. The thesis also discusses mitigation strategies implemented in the ICARUS detector to address this issue and presents a simplified model to describe and simulate the observed behavior.

Saia, Clara [Catania U.] (ORCID:0009000464102417)↗
DOE OSTI2025

Improving ICARUS Track Reconstruction Algorithms

The ICARUS experiment is part of the Short-Baseline Neutrino (SBN) program at Fermilab. The main goal of the experiment is to investigate the possibility of sterile neutrinos in the O(1 eV) mass region and provide clarification of the anomaly detected from the Liquid Scintillator Neutrino Detector (LSND) and MiniBooNE experiments. The ICARUS-T600 detector is a Liquid Argon Time Projection Chamber (LAr-TPC), that can provide excellent 3D imaging and calorimetric reconstruction of any ionizing particles. This detection technique allows a detailed study of neutrino interactions, spanning a wide energy spectrum (from a few keV to several hundreds of GeV). The detector consists of two identical adjacent modules, filled with a total of 760 tons of ultra-pure liquid argon. Each module houses two LAr-TPCs separated by a common cathode with a maximum drift distance of 1.5 m, equivalent to about 1 ms drift time for the nominal $500$ V/m electric drift field. The anode is made of three parallel wire planes positioned 3 mm apart, where the stainless-steel wires are oriented on each plane at a different angle with respect to the horizontal direction ($+60^\degree$,$-60^\degree$,$0^\degree$). The first two planes (Induction 1 and Induction 2) provide a non-destructive charge measurement, whereas the ionization charge is fully collected by the last collection plane. In total, 53248 wires with a 3 mm pitch and length up to 9 m are installed in the detector. In the first stage of the reconstruction, segments of waveforms corresponding to physical signals (hits) are searched for in the deconvolved wire waveform with a threshold-based hit-finding algorithm. Each hit is then fitted with a Gaussian, whose area is proportional to the number of drift electrons generating the signal. In the second stage of the reconstruction, hits are passed as input to Pandora, a framework software composed of different pattern recognition algorithms, that performs a 3D reconstruction of the full image recorded in the collected event, including the identification of interaction vertices and tracks and showers inside the TPC. These are organized into a hierarchical structure (called slice) of particles generated starting from a primary interaction vertex. In some cases, related to the inefficiencies in the hit detection or excessive deflection of the particle trajectory, Pandora breaks the particle's track into two or more smaller pieces and considers each piece as an independent track. We studied this phenomenon focusing on primary muons from ν_μ CC interactions contained in a single module with a track at least 20 cm long, to exclude delta rays. The study determined that about $7-8\%$ of the muon tracks are broken. Approximately $80\%$ of the times, Pandora assigns all segments of the track to the same slice (intra-slice track split), while in the remaining $20\%$ of the cases, one of the segments is associated with another slice (extra-slice track split). To mitigate this phenomenon, we designed an algorithm that detects and stitches the tracks broken by Pandora for the intra-slice split. In Monte Carlo simulations, the algorithm showed an efficiency exceeding $80\%$ and a purity exceeding $93\%$.

Ricci, Alessandro Maria [Pisa U.; INFN, Pisa] (ORC↗
DOE OSTI2026

Ultra-High Vacuum Outgassing Characterization of Thermally Processed Low-Carbon Steel for Advanced Particle Accelerator and Gravitational Wave Detector Applications

This dissertation investigated AISI 1020 low-carbon steel as an alternative vacuum chamber material to conventional stainless steel for ultra-high vacuum (UHV) and extreme-high vacuum (XHV) applications. After a 400 °C/48 h bake, AISI 1020 tube chambers achieved a hydrogen outgassing rate of 2.4 × 10¿¹6 Torr·L·s¿¹·cm¿², approximately 2,300 times lower than the prebaked 316L stainless-steel comparator, among the lowest hydrogen outgassing rates ever reported for an uncoated metallic vacuum chamber. Bare and magnetite-coated AISI 1020 chambers were then compared using throughput and rate-of-rise methods. The magnetite coating yielded 5× lower water outgassing at room temperature, but this advantage disappeared after 80 °C baking. After full thermal conditioning (400 °C/48 h prebake followed by 150 °C/96 h and 200 °C/110 h), bare steel achieved 25× lower hydrogen outgassing than the magnetite-coated chamber (9.6 × 10¿¹6 Torr·L·s¿¹·cm¿²) and >99% H2 purity with carbon species below RGA detection. Monte Carlo molecular flow simulations of a CEBAF photogun beamline (96 scenarios) showed that replacing 304L stainless steel with AISI 1020 reduces equilibrium H2 pressure by a factor of 833; a single 304L electrode contributes 98.8% of the gas load despite occupying only 9.1% of the internal surface area. A 500-m Einstein Telescope beampipe screening showed that corrugated bellows contribute 18% of the gas load from only 0.7% of the surface area. A five-model adsorption isotherm framework applied to 22 pumpdown datasets (164 fits with AR(1)-GLS correction) established that the experimental protocol, not the material, controls isotherm identifiability: Dubinin–Radushkevich wins isothermal pipe pumpdowns; Langmuir wins thermally dominated chamber bakes. Cross-dataset joint fitting of the AISI 1020 pipe pumpdowns yielded an H2 diffusion activation energy Ed = 7.24 ± 1.28 kcal·mol¿¹, consistent with trap dominated diffusion in commercial low-carbon steels. Two companion innovations were developed: a Variable Conductance Device (VCD, patent pending IDF-00723) for XHV outgassing measurement, and VacuumDesignerPro (VDP), a MATLAB-based design tool validated against LIGO benchmarks.

Al-Allaq, Aiman H [Old Dominion University]↗
DOE OSTI2022

Predicting deviations in ex-core detector response in Krsko NPP during an earthquake with Monte-Carlo neutron transport methods

To study the response of ex-core detectors during an earthquake, an approach using Monte Carlo code MCNP was developed. As a first step to predict the response of the ex-core detectors a detailed MCNP model of the Krsko reactor core was created. A detailed MCNP core model was used to calculate 3D power distributions inside the core. Calculated power distributions were verified by comparison to the CORD-2 calculations, which is currently used for core design calculation verification of the Krsko nuclear power plant. Due to the outside the core position of the neutron detectors, the hybrid code ADVANTG is used to generate weight windows to speed up neutron transport outside the reactor core. To be able to use ADVANTG, fixed neutron source had to be reconstructed from the criticality core calculation. It was found that the power range ex-core detector movement has a negligible effect on the value of the thermal neutron flux at the active part of the detector. However, the 5 cm radial movement of the intermediate-range detector leads to 7 % - 8 % change in thermal neutron flux within the active intermediate-range detector region. The analysis continued with the evaluation of the effect of core barrel movement on the ex-core detector response. It was determined that the 2 mm core barrel radial oscillation can lead to ∼ 4% change in thermal neutron flux within the active detector region. It was evaluated that reactor core movement inside the baffle can lead up to ∼ 1.9% and ∼ 1.3% deviation in power-range and intermediate-range detector signal respectively. Analysis showed that the mechanical movement of ex-core neutron detectors could not explain the fluctuations in the ex-core detector signal. However, combined core barrel and reactor core inside baffle oscillations could be a probable reason for the observed fluctuations in the ex-core detector signal during an earthquake. (authors)

21 SPECIFIC NUCLEAR REACTORS AND ASSOCIATED PLANTS↗
DOE OSTI2020

Wireless Instrumented RB Experiment Preliminary Design and Analysis

The ability to deploy new nuclear fuels for current or future reactor concepts requires carefully designed experiments to generate data to support fuel qualification. Ideally these experiments would include state of-the-art sensing to maximize the amount of in situ data that can be collected during operation. Furthermore, advanced reactor systems can take advantage of integrated in-core sensing technologies to maximize fuel utilization, reduce unnecessary conservativism in design margins, and improve operator’s understanding of limiting peaking factors. Before any novel sensing technologies can be readily adopted for nuclear applications, they must first demonstrate acceptable performance in test reactors. This report summarizes the preliminary design and analysis of the most highly instrumented irradiation experiment ever performed in the removable beryllium (RB) positions of the High Flux Isotope Reactor (HFIR) at Oak Ridge National Laboratory (ORNL). The Wireless Instrumented RB Experiment 2021 (WIRE-21) will test a wide range of sensors including wireless sensors being developed by Westinghouse Electric Company (WEC) that could provide in situ measurements of peak fuel temperatures and fuel rod pressurization due to fission gas release. The ability to wirelessly transmit a signal through the fuel rod’s cladding is critical to improving fuel monitoring capabilities without requiring signal penetrations through the cladding pressure boundary, which would significantly impact fuel fabrication, handling, and operation. Other sensors that will be tested in WIRE-21 include an array of thermocouples, self-powered neutron detectors (SPNDs), and spatially distributed fiber-optic temperature sensors. More generally, WIRE-21 will establish a flexible irradiation vehicle design to allow accelerated, economical testing of advanced sensor technologies while leveraging the extremely high neutron flux that is available in HFIR. This report summarizes the mechanical design for WIRE-21, the experimental test matrix, initial neutronic and thermal design analyses, and the active monitoring and control system enhancements necessary to support testing of advanced sensor technologies. The containment for WIRE-21 is similar to previous RB irradiation vehicles but includes a few modifications, most notably the use of integrated compression seals to pass a larger number of sensor leads through the experiment’s pressure boundary. In addition to the sensor leads, inert gas lines are passed into the experiment to enable active temperature control and the ability to pneumatically actuate a bellows-driven pressure sensor. WIRE-21 is targeting temperatures (300–350°C) and neutron fluence levels (~10 22 n/cm 2 ) relevant to light water reactors (LWRs), but the flexible design of the experiment vehicle allows much higher operating temperatures (>1,100°C). Neutronic calculations determine the neutron flux conditions as well as the nuclear heating within the experiments. These results are used as inputs to detailed thermal finite element calculations, which are required to evaluate the complex, three-dimensional heat transfer that occurs within WEC’s wireless sensor enclosures. Initial results show that the temperatures of the sensors’ enclosures and the metal bellows can be operated near the temperature range of LWR coolants and cladding while simultaneously increasing the temperature of a surrogate fuel material to values in the range of 800–1200°C to simulate centerline fuel temperatures during LWR operation.

11 NUCLEAR FUEL CYCLE AND FUEL MATERIALS↗
DOE OSTI2022

Implementation and optimization of the PTOLEMY transverse drift electromagnetic filter

The PTOLEMY transverse drift filter is a new concept to enable precision analysis of the energy spectrum of electrons near the tritium β-decay endpoint. Here, we detail the implementation and optimization methods for successful operation of the filter for electrons with a known pitch angle. We present the first demonstrator that produces the required magnetic field properties with an iron return-flux magnet. Two methods for the setting of filter electrode voltages are detailed. The challenges of low-energy electron transport in cases of low field are discussed, such as the growth of the cyclotron radius with decreasing magnetic field, which puts a ceiling on filter performance relative to fixed filter dimensions. Additionally, low pitch angle trajectories are dominated by motion parallel to the magnetic field lines and introduce non-adiabatic conditions and curvature drift. To minimize these effects and maximize electron acceptance into the filter, we present a three-potential-well design to simultaneously drain the parallel and transverse kinetic energies throughout the length of the filter. These optimizations are shown, in simulation, to achieve low-energy electron transport from a 1 T iron core (or 3 T superconducting) starting field with initial kinetic energy of 18.6 keV drained to < 10 eV (< 1 eV) in about 80 cm. This result for low field operation paves the way for the first demonstrator of the PTOLEMY spectrometer for measurement of electrons near the tritium endpoint to be constructed at the Gran Sasso National Laboratory (LNGS) in Italy.

47 OTHER INSTRUMENTATION↗
DOE OSTI2024

Spectroscopic Measurements and Models of Energy Deposition in the Substrate of Quantum Circuits by Natural Ionizing Radiation

Naturally occurring background radiation is a potential source of correlated decoherence events in superconducting qubits that will challenge error-correction schemes. In order to characterize the radiation environment in an unshielded laboratory representative of superconducting qubits’ environments, we performed broadband, spectroscopic measurements of background radiation events inside a millikelvin refrigerator. The spectrometer was designed to mimic the size and composition of a quantum circuit. Specifically, we measured the background radiation spectra in silicon substrates of two thicknesses, 500 and 1500 µm, and one area, 25 mm 2 . The observed spectra span energies from a few kilo-electron-volts up to nearly 10 MeV, are nearly featureless, and decrease in intensity by a factor of 40 000 between 100 keV and 3 MeV for the 500-µm substrate. We integrate the spectra to obtain the average event rates and deposited power levels. These quantities correspond to a rate of 0.023 events per second and a power of 4.9 keV s -1 , when counting events that deposit at least 40 keV for the 500-µm-thick substrate. We find that the cryogenic measurements are in good agreement with predictions based on simple measurements of the terrestrial gamma-ray flux outside the refrigerator, published models of cosmic-ray fluxes, a crude model of the cryostat, and radiation-transport simulations. This model requires no free parameters to predict the background radiation spectra in the silicon substrates. The agreement between measurements and predictions demonstrates that the model we present can be used to assess the relative contributions of terrestrial and cosmic-ray sources to background radiation interactions in silicon substrates of varying thickness. These spectroscopic measurements are performed with a novel combination of superconducting microresonators located on micromachined silicon islands that define the interaction volume with background radiation. The resonators transduce deposited energy to a readily detectable electrical signal. Microresonator readout closely resembles dispersive superconducting qubit readout, so similar devices—with or without micromachined islands—are suitable for integration with superconducting quantum circuits as detectors for background radiation events. For our specific laboratory conditions, we find that gamma-ray emissions from radioisotopes are responsible for the majority of events that deposit E < 1 ⁢Me⁢V. We present results demonstrating that the background radiation spectrum contains relevant contributions from cosmic-ray particles other than muons, particularly a tail of multi-mega-electron-volt events due to protons and neutrons. These observations suggest several paths to reducing the impact of background radiation on quantum circuits, supported by an empirically validated model for generating reliable predictions of radiation interactions with silicon substrates.

71 CLASSICAL AND QUANTUM MECHANICS, GENERAL PHYSIC↗
DOE OSTI2021

Performance Demonstration of Self-Powered Neutron Detectors for Steady-State Reactor Operations

The irradiation testing of sensors in reactors is a crucial step towards calibrating and qualifying sensors prior to their deployment in experiments. This report details the process toward qualifying and calibrating custom-designed rhodium-based self-power neutron detectors (Rh-SPNDs) for steady-state reactor irradiations. This process serves to both demonstrate the performance capabilities of Rh-SPNDs as well as to provide experimental data for development of a sensor sensitivity model. Two designs of Rh-SPNDs were tested in various reactors to demonstrate: detection resolution in a low neutron flux environment, a delayed-response compensation technique, output linearity in a large range of neutron flux, and measurement accuracy verified with dosimetry. The detection resolution and compensation technique was demonstrated in the AGN-201m reactor at Idaho State University. The irradiation confirmed the sensors’ capability to perform steady-state operations in a low neutron flux of ~2E8 n/cm 2 -sec. Sensor output linearity coupled with the delayed-response compensation was investigated at the neutron radiography reactor at Idaho National Laboratory. A Rh-SPND was irradiated to neutron fluxes ranging from 2E8 to 2E13 n/cm2-sec range. The measured data demonstrated a wide and linear range of operation with a measured linear sensitivity of 1.0129 ×10 -13 A/W with a correlation-squared value of r 2 =0.9927. The measurement accuracy was investigated at the Advanced Test Reactor Critical reactor. The SPNDs were inserted into a test vehicle with collocated flux wires. Two irradiations with different flux levels were performed, and the SPNDs relative measurement between the two irradiations was calculated to be 1.2613 ± 0.0153 for the small SPND design and 1.1809 ± 0.0108 for the large SPND design. Both SPND measurements fell between the co-axial dosimetry result, which reported 1.218 ± 0.047. Additionally, the preliminary MCNP model for calculating SPND sensitivity was developed in parallel to this work. Modeled neutron spectrum with measured magnitude was used for inputs to determine the simulated SPND output. The results showed an overestimation of signal strength by a factor of 5, which was expected because of model simplification. This leads to future modeling work to account for signal losses from additional physical properties, including high temperature environments for FY-21.

46 INSTRUMENTATION RELATED TO NUCLEAR SCIENCE AND ↗
DOE OSTI2024

Identify and Assess Technical Challenges in Safeguards Measurements of Spent Advanced Reactor Fuels

Advanced reactor (AR) designs use various nuclear fuel types that can be significantly different than conventional light-water reactor (LWR) fuels, including differences in sizes, compositions, and chemical forms (e.g., oxide, carbide, metal). Nearly all the proposed AR fuels use high-assay low-enriched uranium (HALEU), which will have higher enrichments (5–20 wt% 235 U) than LWR fuels (currently limited to <5 wt% 235 U). In advance of the wide use of these new fuel types around the world, international safeguards organizations such as the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA]) are working with some of the AR vendors to formulate safeguards approaches for these AR fuel cycles. As part of the overall safeguards approach, it is important to identify the potential technical challenges in performing safeguards verification measurements of these AR fuels (both fresh and spent fuels) in advance of the widespread adoption of these new fuel types, because new safeguards technologies can take several years to develop, test, and approve for use. This report documents work performed in fiscal year 2024 based on modeling and simulation to assess the performance of the existing safeguards measurement technologies for irradiated or spent AR fuel elements or items. This work is a continuation of the work performed in fiscal year 2023 that focused on fresh AR fuels. Spent AR fuels have a distinct difference from their LWR counterparts: unlike the spent LWR fuels typically stored in a water-filled pool, some spent AR fuels—such as tristructural-isotropic (TRISO)-based fuels—will most likely be stored in air-filled hot cells. Because most safeguards measurements on spent fuel performed to date have been conducted under water, the air-filled hot cell environment could present unique challenges to safeguards measurements. Fork detector (FDET) and Cerenkov viewing device (CVD) systems have been the two primary instruments used by the IAEA for several decades to measure spent LWR fuel assemblies stored in pools for safeguards verification purposes. Because the lower refractive index of air causes Cerenkov light to be of lower intensity in air than in water, existing CVDs are likely unable to perform safeguards verification measurements for spent fuel stored in an air-filled hot cell, as is the case for the TRISO-based spent fuel elements (e.g., pebbles, graphite fuel blocks). Unlike FDET measurements, CVD measurements do not require fuel be moved, so they are a simpler and faster to take than FDET measurements. The inability to perform CVD measurements on the TRISO-based AR fuel types presents a major technical challenge in the effort to use existing technology to perform safeguards measurements on spent AR fuels. This study was mainly conducted through the modeling and simulation of an FDET or an FDET-like system on five spent AR fuel types, including one metallic fuel type and four TRISO-based fuel types in both pebble and graphite block forms in their respective storage configurations and environments. Because the various AR fuel types have significantly different dimensions, FDET systems must be adapted to accommodate them. Partial defect tests were also simulated in this study to assess the FDET’s ability to detect potential fuel diversions. The FDET measures the fuel’s total passive neutron and gamma emissions. The simulated FDET results from spent AR fuel items are compared against results from a typical spent pressurized water reactor (PWR) assembly. High-purity germanium (HPGe) gamma detector measurements were also simulated for the spent AR fuel types and the PWR assembly because the signature photopeaks have been used in LWR safeguards verifications, although HPGe is usually not used to detect diversions because of the fuel’s self-attenuation effects on those photopeaks. The results indicate that these detectors have significant challenges in performing safeguards measurements of the spent AR fuel items, including incompatibilities between AR fuel items and existing FDETs, lower neutron count rates, lower sensitivities to fuel diversions in certain AR fuel items, and significantly higher interference from a neighboring fuel item when the measurement is performed in air. These results suggest that an alternative technology or significant and timely technology development is needed to perform adequate safeguards measurements of some of these AR fuel items.

11 NUCLEAR FUEL CYCLE AND FUEL MATERIALS↗
DOE OSTI2023

A long path-length optical property measurement device for highly transparent detector media

Measurements of the optical properties of highly transparent liquids are necessary for large-scale detectors that seek to detect optical signatures in kiloton-scale or larger volumes. Detailed understanding of the attenuation and scattering properties of fill media is critical to the ability to accurately simulate detector performance, and yet is often unavailable until in-situ measurements can be performed. Moreover, in-situ measurements may rely on effective attenuation lengths or other approximations to characterize performance, rather than absolute measurements of attenuation and scattering. To better understand the optical properties of potential fill media and purification schemes, a system has been developed which provides simultaneous attenuation and differential scattering cross-section measurements for highly transparent liquids. This horizontal, adjustable path-length “long-arm” system provides excellent isolation from the atmosphere, a high degree of vibration insensitivity, and a simple and reliable method of calibration. Further, scattering measurements can be carried out simultaneously at ports along the beamline equipped with optics allowing the selection of scatter angle and polarization. This enables both reliable quantitative scatter measurements and phase-function separation. This system has been extensively tested using deionized (DI) water as a benchmark, and has demonstrated repeatable measurements of attenuation lengths exceeding 100 m and scattering lengths approaching 1 km.

47 OTHER INSTRUMENTATION↗
DOE OSTI2025

Uniform field in microwave cavities through the use of effective magnetic walls

Wire medium (WM) resonators have emerged as a promising realization for plasma haloscopes—devices designed to detect axions, a potential component of dark matter. Key factors influencing the detection probability include cavity volume, resonance quality factor, and form factor. While the form factor has been explored for resonant frequency tuning, its optimization for axion detection remains unexplored. Here, in this work, we present an approach to significantly enhancing the form factor of WM plasma haloscopes. By shifting the metal walls of the resonator by a quarter wavelength, we effectively convert an electric wall boundary condition into a magnetic wall one, allowing for an almost uniform mode. Theoretical analysis and numerical simulations confirm that this modification improves the electric field profile and boosts the form factor, while also slightly enhancing the quality factor. We validate these findings through experimental results from two prototype resonators: one with a standard geometry and another with a quarter-wave air gap between the WM and the walls. Additionally, our method provides a simple way to control the field profile within WM cavities, which can be explored for further applications.

46 INSTRUMENTATION RELATED TO NUCLEAR SCIENCE AND ↗
DOE OSTI2021

Simulating MADMAX in 3D: Requirements for Dielectric Axion Haloscopes

We present 3D calculations for dielectric haloscopes such as the currently envisioned MADMAX experiment. For ideal systems with perfectly flat, parallel and isotropic dielectric disks of finite diameter, we find that a geometrical form factor reduces the emitted power by up to 30% compared to earlier 1D calculations. We derive the emitted beam shape, which is important for antenna design. We show that realistic dark matter axion velocities of 10 -3 c and inhomogeneities of the external magnetic field at the scale of 10% have negligible impact on the sensitivity of MADMAX. We investigate design requirements for which the emitted power changes by less than 20% for a benchmark boost factor with a bandwidth of 50 MHz at 22 GHz, corresponding to an axion mass of 90 μeV. We find that the maximum allowed disk tilt is 100 μm divided by the disk diameter, the required disk planarity is 20 μm (min-to-max) or better, and the maximum allowed surface roughness is 100 μm (min-to-max). We show how using tiled dielectric disks glued together from multiple smaller patches can affect the beam shape and antenna coupling.

46 INSTRUMENTATION RELATED TO NUCLEAR SCIENCE AND ↗
DOE OSTI2023

SYNCA: A Synthetic Cyclotron Antenna for the Project 8 Collaboration

Cyclotron Radiation Emission Spectroscopy (CRES) is a technique for measuring the kinetic energy of charged particles through a precision measurement of the frequency of the cyclotron radiation generated by the particle's motion in a magnetic field. The Project 8 collaboration is developing a next-generation neutrino mass measurement experiment based on CRES. One approach is to use a phased antenna array, which surrounds a volume of tritium gas, to detect and measure the cyclotron radiation of the resulting β-decay electrons. To validate the feasibility of this method, Project 8 has designed a test stand to benchmark the performance of an antenna array at reconstructing signals that mimic those of genuine CRES events. To generate synthetic CRES events, a novel probe antenna has been developed, which emits radiation with characteristics similar to the cyclotron radiation produced by charged particles in magnetic fields. This paper outlines the design, construction, and characterization of this Synthetic Cyclotron Antenna (SYNCA). Furthermore, we perform a series of measurements that use the SYNCA to test the position reconstruction capabilities of the digital beamforming reconstruction technique. Finally, we find that the SYNCA produces radiation with characteristics closely matching those expected for cyclotron radiation and reproduces experimentally the phenomenology of digital beamforming simulations of true CRES signals.

47 OTHER INSTRUMENTATION↗