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DOE OSTI2021

Global Market Analysis of Microreactors

Microreactors are smaller and simplified versions of nuclear power plants using current generation and advanced nuclear technology designs. The purpose of this report is to assesses the unique capabilities of microreactors and assess potential deployment in specific global markets in the 2030-2050 timeframe, with consideration for regulatory limits. The methods include developing unique microreactor deployment indicators and matching use cases to define future profile markets. Top-down and bottom-up analysis techniques were used to evaluate emerging market trends, derive a range of possible demands, and rank potential markets in 63 countries including current nuclear users and newcomer countries. Deployment is considered from regulatory and planning perspectives. Results indicate significant potential for global deployment of microreactors, but also significant challenges in achieving the technical capacities, meeting regulatory requirements and international accords, achieving competitive costs, and for gaining public acceptance. Profile microreactor markets were identified that include isolated operations, distributed energy, resilient urban applications, marine propulsion, and disaster relief. Market demands could be strong in Western Europe and possibly even the U.S., but particularly strong across Asia and Eastern Europe in isolated operations and distributed energy applications. Build rates in the hundreds of units by 2040 and thousands by 2050 would be needed to attain market penetration at scale.

21 SPECIFIC NUCLEAR REACTORS AND ASSOCIATED PLANTS↗

DOE OSTI2024

Solid-state information pattern discriminating switch

A maze-based switch generally having three functional blocks is disclosed. The first functional block handles communications by accepting an entered maze pattern from an external system controller and outputting the entered maze pattern (and optionally its directional complement) to the second functional block. The second functional block stores the maze pattern (and optionally its directional complement) to a permanent storage element and outputs the stored, entered maze pattern and its directional complement to a series of transistors in the third functional block. The third functional block is an electronic maze in which a correct maze pattern and its directional complement must be received by the transistors for the transistors to pass electrical power through the electronic maze to a connected element. The third functional block may alternatively be implemented with optical elements, optoelectronic elements, microelectromechanical elements, or elements formed by other microsystem technologies.

Galambos, Paul C.↗

DOE OSTI2025

Surface structure of water from soft X-ray second harmonic generation

The microscopic structure of water’s surface is crucial to many natural and industrial processes, but studying its hydrogen bond (H-bond) network directly remains challenging due to the required interfacial sensitivity of experimental techniques. By leveraging advances in flat liquid sheet microjets and terawatt-scale attosecond soft X-ray pulses from the LCLS X-ray free electron laser, we employed soft X-ray second harmonic generation (SXSHG) spectroscopy to examine the liquid water/vapor interface. SXSHG combines the elemental selectivity of X-ray spectroscopies with the surface selectivity of SHG and gives access to the electronic structure of interfacial species. Here, we show the SXSHG spectrum differs from bulk water’s X-ray absorption, with its peak shifted several eV, indicating a vastly different electronic environment at the interface as compared to the bulk. First-principles electronic structure calculations show the signal is highly sensitive to H-bond interactions, such as water molecules accepting a single H-bond, which are surface abundant.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗

DOE OSTI2026

Prime Time for Model-Predictive Control? Assessing the Technical and Market Readiness of Advanced Controls in Buildings

Despite three decades of extensive research and field testing that have consistently validated the benefits of Model Predictive Control (MPC) in building applications, the technology has seen limited market adoption. This paper evaluates the readiness of MPC for widespread deployment, showcases recent demonstrations and field tests across diverse building types, including residential, small commercial, large commercial, and campus settings. Our results demonstrate that MPC can optimize system operations to achieve load shifting, minimize curtailment of on-site generation, and reduce energy costs by up to 80 %, while maintaining or improving occupant comfort. We also show that MPC can effectively control large assets, such as MW-sized thermal storage systems, and respond to dynamic pricing signals. However, achieving scale remains difficult due to labor-intensive workflows, reliance on a “PhD-in-the-loop” for MPC design and maintenance, susceptibility to fragile data infrastructure, and persistent workforce education and acceptance barriers. To bridge this gap, we outline a transition from bespoke, labor intensive prototypes toward streamlined, segment-targeted deployment strategies that leverage model templates, semantic tools, and generative AI. By automating control configuration and reducing engineering effort, these recommendations provide a pathway for transforming successful research demonstrations into scalable, market ready solutions for MPC-based controls.

Pritoni, Marco↗

DOE OSTI2025

White Paper: Research & Development for the Time at Temperature Approach

Recent advancements in nuclear power research are greatly improving reactor safety and performance through the development of Accident Tolerant Fuel (ATF) and Low-Enriched Uranium Plus (LEU+). These innovations can address Departure from Nucleate Boiling (DNB) margins, which are vital for reactor safety. DNB happens when the coolant switches to film boiling, significantly decreasing heat transfer and posing a risk of fuel cladding failure. The U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) employs conservative DNB criteria, which can potentially restrict the operational flexibility and efficiency of reactors. The Time at Temperature (TaT) approach could provide a more detailed and adaptable operational guideline by establishing acceptable time-temperature limits, accounting for the duration a material can withstand elevated temperatures without losing its integrity. This method allows reactors to operate more efficiently and safely, offering additional operational margins, faster power adjustments, and improved fuel cycle economics. TaT criteria allow for higher power levels and more flexible responses to operational transients, particularly applicable for anticipated operational occurrences (AOOs) that result in short durations of post-DNB conditions. It enhances plant operational flexibility, allows faster startup times, and enables quicker power level adjustments, optimizing fuel loading patterns and improving fuel cycle economics. Implementing TaT limits reduces core design constraints, lowers fuel usage, and reduces costs, essential for the long-term sustainability of Light Water Reactors (LWRs). TaT maximizes the use of advanced fuel technologies like ATF and LEU+, further enhancing their economic and environmental benefits. To apply the TaT approach in existing LWRs, collaborative research activities among various DOE-sponsored programs are essential. These efforts should incorporate fuel experiments, physics-based high-fidelity modeling, ML-based surrogate modeling, and optimization techniques. This whitepaper proposes four research and development areas: 1) Investigation of the feasibility of new operations of LWR with updated safety limits; 2) Assessment of reactor operation limits through uncertainty reduction; 3) Evaluation of power uprate in virtual environment; and 4) Lattice and reactor core design for power uprate. Each area includes why this research is in need and a suggested scope of work. These comprehensive research areas ensure practical and beneficial advancements for existing reactors, translating innovations in nuclear fuel and cladding technology into improved reactor performance and safety.

42 - ENGINEERING↗

DOE OSTI2025

Evaluation of Technologies to Mitigate the Presence of Gaseous Elemental Mercury in Waste Disposal Containers

A study was conducted to evaluate sorbent technologies that can mitigate the presence of elemental mercury (Hg⁰) in waste containers for mercury-contaminated debris (MCD). Decontamination and demolition (D&D) activities at the Y-12 National Security Complex (Y-12) and other U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) Oak Ridge Reservation (ORR) facilities generate MCD requiring offsite disposal. The debris is packaged in appropriate waste containers and may be temporarily stored onsite prior to transport for treatment and/or disposal. During transportation of loads that had no visible liquid Hg at the point of origin, temperature changes can cause Hg⁰ to evaporate, condense, and form droplets on container walls. Furthermore, vibration during transportation could cause beads of Hg to be released from the debris, container walls, and ceiling, resulting in pools of liquid Hg⁰ on the container floor. Waste acceptance criteria (WAC) limitations for commercial disposal facilities, the Nevada National Security Site (NNSS), and ORR mixed low-level waste landfills prohibit the presence of any free liquids in containers identified as a solid waste form. Potential solutions to mitigate the presence of residual liquids that could be formed through vapor condensation include the use of sorbents or similar materials to capture and stabilize volatile Hg⁰ vapors and thus ensure compliance with landfill WAC requirements. This report summarizes data from small-scale laboratory experiments conducted to evaluate sorbent materials for Hg⁰ vapor suppression and sorption of liquid Hg⁰ that could form under relevant transportation and disposal conditions. A series of experiments was conducted to evaluate commercial sorbent materials and their effectiveness for Hg⁰ sorption across a temperature range from 19.4°C to 60°C. The impact of residual moisture on sorption was investigated under relevant conditions, and leaching tests were performed to assess the stability of Hg⁰ captured sorbent materials. The results provide estimates for sorbent quantities needed for a given Hg⁰ mass loading based on experimental results exposing sorbents to gaseous and liquid Hg⁰ at various mass ratios. Overall, sorbents that were most effective for Hg⁰ vapor suppression were brominated activated carbons, mackinawite-based sorbents coated on vermiculite, and sulfur-modified granular activated carbon. Elevated temperatures and moisture conditions did not result in significant increases of Hg⁰ headspace concentrations, and the materials also demonstrated high sorption capacities for the sorption of liquid Hg⁰.

12 MANAGEMENT OF RADIOACTIVE AND NON-RADIOACTIVE W↗

DOE OSTI2021

SABRE: The Silicon Array for Branching Ratio Experiments

Not provided.

Instruments & Instrumentation↗

DOE OSTI2022

Designer Metasurfaces for Antireflective Applications Enabled by Advanced Nanoparticle Technology

Optic processing advances have shifted system limitations, with current constraints consisting of antireflective (AR) coatings applied to optics and the inability to reduce size, weight, and price. Metasurfaces, and more broadly metaoptics, provide an avenue to overcome these limitations. The ability to generate substrate-engraved metasurfaces that can be tailored is demonstrated within a broad design space to satisfy large-area AR applications for bandpass or broadband needs, demonstrating an optically equivalent surface roughness standard deviation of only 5 Å. Using an advanced nanoparticle masking approach, two metasurfaces are fabricated: 1) vertical sidewall nanofeature metasurface (MS) for AR applications at 351 nm, and 2) sloped sidewall MS designed for broadband AR applications. For the 351 nm MS, the reflectance is measured to be 0.127%. In the case of the sloped sidewall MS, the reflectance is measured to be <0.25% over 400–700 nm and <1% over 400–1100 nm. To the best of the authors’ knowledge, this is the first demonstration of a broadband AR capable of this performance. The tunability of these structures, with a parameter space spanning even more remarkable designs such as broader bands and acceptance angles, coupled with high laser-induced damage durability and mechanical robustness, displays the strength of metasurfaces for AR applications.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗

DOE OSTI2022

Anomalies and Local Structure of Liquid Water from Boiling to the Supercooled Regime as Predicted by the Many-Body MB-pol Model

For the past 50 years, researchers have sought molecular models that can accurately reproduce water’s microscopic structure and thermophysical properties across broad ranges of its complex phase diagram. Herein, molecular dynamics simulations with the many-body MB-pol model are performed to monitor the thermodynamic response functions and local structure of liquid water from the boiling point down to deeply supercooled temperatures at ambient pressure. The isothermal compressibility and isobaric heat capacity show maxima near 223 K, in excellent agreement with recent experiments, and the liquid density exhibits a minimum at ~208 K. A local tetrahedral arrangement, where each water molecule accepts and donates two hydrogen bonds, is found to be the most probable hydrogen-bonding topology at all temperatures. Further, this work suggests that MB-pol may provide predictive capability for studies of liquid water’s physical properties across broad ranges of thermodynamic states, including the so-called water’s “no man’s land” which is difficult to probe experimentally.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗

DOE OSTI2020

SNL will be able to provide well-calibrated models to weapons systems analysts by integrating an engine for constitutive model calibration with the GRANTA materials database

Researchers at Sandia National Laboratories have integrated the GRANTA materials database with the MatCal calibration engine to calibrate material models from characterization data. GRANTA is gaining acceptance across the NNSA Tri-lab complex and is being populated with weapons-specific test data by Sandia experimentalists. To use that data to create material models for use by weapons systems analysts, MatCal has been enabled import calibration data and test conditions from GRANTA to quickly and reproducibly produce a calibrated set of parameters for a given constitutive model. The team is currently working to store the parameters characterizing material behavior in GRANTA to make them accessible by all weapons analysts.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗

DOE OSTI1995

Nuclear Safety [Vol. 36, No. 2, July-December 1995]

Nuclear Safety is a journal that covers significant issues in the field of nuclear safety. Its primary scope is safety in the design, construction, operation, and decommissioning of nuclear power reactors worldwide and the research and analysis activities that promote this goal, but it also encompasses the safety aspects of the entire nuclear fuel cycle, including fuel fabrication, spent-fuel processing and handling, and nuclear waste disposal, the handling of fissionable materials and radioisotopes, and the environmental effects of all these activities. Table of Contents for this issue follows. THE CHORNOBYL ACCIDENT: 195 The Chornobyl Accident Revisited, Part III: Chernobyl Source Term Release Dynamics and Reconstruction of Events During the Active Phase, A. R. Sich; GENERAL SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS: 218 Second ANS Workshop on the Safety of Soviet-Designed Nuclear Power Plants, R. A. Bari; 234 Elements of a Nuclear Criticality Safety Program, C. M. Hopper; 243 Rickover, Excellence, and Criticality Safety Programs, R. E. Wilson; ACCIDENT ANALYSIS: 249 Transient Analysis of the PIUS Advanced Reactor Design with the TRAC-PF1/MOD2 Code, B. E. Boyack, J. L Steiner, S. C. Harmony, H. J. Stumpf, and J. F. Lime; 278 The Hierarchy-By-Interval Approach to Identifying Important Models that Need Improvement in Severe-Accident Simulation Codes, T. J. Heames, M. Khatib-Rahbar, J. E. Kelly, R. P. Jenks-Johnson, and Y.-S. Chen; 290 RELAP5/MOD3 Code Coupling Model, R. P. Martin; 299 Missiles Caused by Severe Pressurized-Water Reactor Accidents, R. Krieg; DESIGN FEATURES: 310 Validation of COMMIX with Westinghouse AP-600 PCCS Test Data, J. G. Sun, T. H. Chien, J. Ding, and W T. Sha; ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS: 321 Spent Nuclear Fuel Characterization for a Bounding Reference Assembly for the Receiving Basin for Off-Site Fuel, S. D. Kahook, R. L. Garrett, L. R. Canas, and M J. Beckum; OPERATING EXPERIENCES: 332 Reactor Shutdown Experience, Compiled by J. W. Cletcher; U.S. NUCLEAR REGULATORY COMMISSION INFORMATION AND ANALYSES: 335 Reactor Coolant System Blowdown at Wolf Creek on September 17, 1994, J. V. Kauffman and S. L. Israel; RECENT DEVELOPMENTS: 344 Reports, Standards, and Safety Guides, D. S. Oueener; 349 Proposed Rule Changes as of June 30, 1995; ANNOUNCEMENTS: 320 Symposium on Acceptability of Risk From Radiation—Application to Manned Space Flight; 320 24th DOE/NRC Nuclear Air Cleaning and Treatment Conference; 361 Radiation Biology and Radiation Protection— Modern Developments and Tendencies in Radiation Biology; 362 1997 IEEE Sixth Conference on Human Factors and Power Plants; 354 The Authors; 360 Reviewers of Nuclear Safety, Vol. 36.

11 NUCLEAR FUEL CYCLE AND FUEL MATERIALS↗

DOE OSTI2021

Total metals & anion concentration data; Slate River floodplain, Crested Butte, CO; May 2020-September 2020

This data package includes processed and undiluted measurements for metal and anion concentrations from pore water (groundwater) samples from the Slate River floodplain of Crested Butte, CO, a focus field site for the SLAC Floodplain Hydro-Biogeochemistry SFA. The data was generated as part of the work targeting the overarching research question for the SLAC SFA: How do ubiquitous subsurface interfaces mediate molecular-scale biogeochemical processes and groundwater quality in floodplains and watersheds? Samples were collected between May and September of 2020. These measurements were all recorded at the Arizona Laboratory for Emerging Contaminants (ALEC) at the University of Arizona located in Tucson, AZ. Groundwater samples were extracted from a network of installed rhizon (Rhizosphere Research Products, part no. 19.60.21F, 0.6 micrometer mesh size) and piezometer wells within the river floodplain. All water samples were shaded from sun exposure during extraction from the subsurface and preserved at 4C until measured at ALEC.Analysis by ICP-MS:Measurements for total metals were made on the Agilent 7700x ICP-MS (for total metals) – Agilent Technologies, Santa Clara, CA.The analytical QA/QC protocol was adapted from US EPA Method 200.8 for analysis by ICP-MS. Calibration standards were prepared from multi-element stock solution (Sigma-Aldrich Multielement standard solution for ICP, St. Louis, MO) using matrix matched to sample solutions (either 2% HCl or HNO3 from AriStar Plus,grade acids from VWR Scientific). Calibration curves include at least 7 points with correlation coefficients > 0.995. The QC protocol includes a continuing calibration blank (CCB), a continuing calibration verification (CCV) solution and at least one quality control sample (QCS) to be analyzed just after calibration and again after every 12 samples and at the completion of the run. The QCS solutions are from an independent source, such as NIST SRM 1643e - Trace Elements in Water, or QCS solutions from High Purity Standards (Charleston, SC). Acceptable QC responses must be between 90 and 110% of the certified value. An internal standard (Rh) is added via on-line addition into the sample line using a mixing tee.Analysis by Ion Chromatography (Anions):The protocol follows Method 4110 in Standard Methods for Examination of Water and Wastewater.The instrument used is the Thermo Scientific Dionex ICS-6000 using AS+AG22 column set for anion analysis with isocratic method using sodium carbonate eluent. Detection is by chemical suppression of eluent conductivity. Quality control solutions and mixed analyte standards purchased from Inorganic Ventures, Christiansburg, VA.All files are in csv format.

54 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES↗

DOE OSTI2026

Development Fiber Optic Distributed System for Direct Detection of Subsurface Gases Leakages

Carbon, natural gas, and hydrogen gas storage is an emerging solution to safeguard us against pollution, support goals of negative carbon emission, and protect sources of renewable energy. Properly constructed storage wells provide a virtually impervious barrier to any unintended subsurface transmission. The ability to ensure the long-term integrity of such wells is vital to the success of any storage operation and be successful in the public eyes. Therefore, robust monitoring of any gas migration into the subsurface is highly sought. A fiber-optic distributed chemical sensor (DCS) enables monitoring of long-term well integrity along its depth, ensuring the success of any storage operation and bolsters public acceptance of the safety of the reservoir via leak early detection. The same technique can be applied to gas monitoring in pipeline networks and nuclear stockpile monitoring applications. Fiber based Raman spectroscopy enables DCS, as optical fibers can be deployed in virtually any environment and relay spectroscopic information over long distances back to the user. Hollow core fibers (HCF) make excellent DCSs as the air core of the fiber allows gas from the environment to diffuse into the core, which interacts with the laser signal that is carried in the air core. This work builds upon the previous LDRD project, Fiber Optic System for Direct Detection of Carbon Dioxide Leakage in Carbon Storage Wells (21-FS-003), in which the feasibility of Raman spectroscopy detection of Carbon Dioxide (CO2) in HCF detection was demonstrated. We mitigated the risk of this DCS technology by establishing and completing five objectives. The first objective was to model and optically characterize HCF uptake of CO2, establishing the relationship between HCF length, gas diffusion time, detectable gas concentration, and measured Raman intensity. In objective two, we developed a fiber core drilling recipe to enable additional diffusion ports in the fiber core and established a method for maintaining fiber strength and integrity post drilling. Objective three characterized the drilled fibers against the undrilled fibers, establishing the differences in the gas mechanics and optical properties and provided parameters to iterate the drilling process. In objective four, a fusion splicing technique was developed to join the HCF to conventional single-mode fibers, localizing the gas detection point at the drilled HCF hole, emulating a DCS. Lastly, objective five was the testing of the sensor in Edgar Mines at Colorado School of Mines on a CO2 pipeline with a simulated leak, to showcase the ability to detect CO2 leaks. This capstone result showed CO2 leak detection in < 10 minutes, raising the technology readiness level of HCF segments as deployable DCS.

organic↗

DOE OSTI2024

Double cylinder implosion experiments at the National Ignition Facility

Here, cylindrical implosion experiments are used to directly measure instability growth in a convergent geometry, providing a wealth of data for model validation. Double cylinders are a natural extension of the platform and enable measurements at a classically unstable interface, the outer surface of the inner cylinder, which experiences no ablative stabilization from the laser drive. However, the utility of this platform relies upon maintaining adequate axial uniformity of the inner cylinder during the implosion. Although previous smaller-scale double cylinder experiments exhibited acceptable levels of axial uniformity, radiation-hydrodynamics simulations of larger-scale double cylinders predict more axial non-uniformity induced by the impedance mismatch as the shock wraps around the axial ends of the inner cylinder. A mechanism to reduce axial non-uniformity in these larger double cylinder implosions is presented, and preliminary experimental data confirms the efficacy of the selected mitigation approach.

70 PLASMA PHYSICS AND FUSION TECHNOLOGY↗

DOE OSTI1995

Nuclear Safety [Vol. 36, No. 2, July-December 1995]

05 NUCLEAR FUELS↗

DOE OSTI2024

Benefits of the Super-X divertor configuration for scenario integration on MAST Upgrade

The integration of good core and edge/pedestal confinement with strong dissipation of heat and particles in the divertors is a significant challenge for the development of fusion energy. Alternative divertor configurations offer potential advantages by broadening the operational space where a device can operate with detached divertors and acceptable power exhaust. First results from MAST Upgrade are presented from high confinement mode experiments with outer divertors in the Super-X divertor configuration, showing that the outer divertors naturally detach when the Super-X is formed with no discernible impact on the plasma core and pedestal. These initial findings confirm predicted benefits of the Super-X configuration in terms of facilitating scenario integration.

70 PLASMA PHYSICS AND FUSION TECHNOLOGY↗

DOE OSTI2022

The Optics of Deterrence: How Science Assures the Nuclear Stockpile's Reliability In Lieu of Testing

When designing a product intended to perform a certain function and satisfy some set of criteria, the standard engineering method to assess its ability to perform is to test it. This nearly universal concept works consistently, assuring proper function and generally avoiding or mitigating the consequence of failure to within acceptable limits. What would happen if the product developers were told that they must continue to certify and validate the performance without testing it, that the landscape in which the product must serve its purpose is constantly evolving, and that the product in question is the United States’ nuclear weapons stockpile? This is the position the National Nuclear Security Administration (NNSA) finds itself in; the reliability of the stockpile must be verified without actually testing it to see if it works as intended.

43 PARTICLE ACCELERATORS↗

DOE OSTI2020

Quantifying Dynamic On-State Resistance of GaN HEMTs for Power Converter Design via a Survey of Low and High Voltage Devices

Designing and optimizing high switching frequency, ultra-efficient converters requires detailed knowledge of the behavior and parasitic parameters for both active and passive components. Recently, wide bandgap transistors have enabled simultaneous increases in both switching frequency and efficiency due to higher maximum operating junction temperature limits, lower dc on-state resistances, and reduced parasitic inductances and capacitances. Yet, the early acceptance of gallium-nitride (GaN) switches was plagued by detrimental dynamic on-state resistance effects. This complex phenomenon for GaN devices is characterized by deviations in on-state resistance from dc operating characteristics based on design choices such as the magnitude and duration of both voltage and current stress, switching mode, and junction temperature. While device manufacturers have made improvements compared to early generation devices, experimental evidence from a survey of commercial GaN transistors highlight measurable change in on-state resistance still exists due to variations in voltage stress during hard-switching operation. After sharing insights for obtaining low noise measurements, an analysis method along with two metrics are proposed to characterize dynamic on-state resistance measurements for power electronics designers. Furthermore, quantifying the performance of GaN devices with standardized metrics facilitates a fair comparison between different GaN device technologies during converter development, enables manufacturing qualification for GaN switches, and provides a benchmark to catalyze improvement for the next generation of GaN device development.

14 SOLAR ENERGY↗