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At least 415 records · Page 23
All sourcesNASA NTRSDOE OSTI
DOE OSTI2021

Hydrogen-assisted fracture resistance of pipeline welds in gaseous hydrogen

Fracture resistance of pipeline welds from a range of strength grades and welding techniques was measured in air and 21 MPa hydrogen gas, including electric resistance weld of X52, friction stir weld of X100 and gas metal arc welds (GMAW) of X52, X65 and X100. Welds exhibited a decrease in fracture resistance in hydrogen compared to complementary tests in air. A general trend was observed that fracture resistance in 21 MPa hydrogen gas decreased with increasing yield strength. To accommodate material constraints, two different fracture coupon geometries were used in this study, which were shown to yield similar fracture resistance values in air and 21 MPa hydrogen gas; values using different coupons resulted in less than 15% difference. In addition, fracture coupons were removed from controlled locations in select welds to examine the potential influence of orientation and residual stress. The two orientations examined in the X100 GMAW exhibited negligible differences in fracture resistance in air and, similarly, negligible differences in hydrogen. Residual stress exhibited a modest influence on fracture resistance; however, a consistent trend was not observed between tests in air and hydrogen, suggesting further studies are necessary to better understand the influence of residual stress. A comparison of welds and base metals tested in hydrogen gas showed similar susceptibility to hydrogen-assisted fracture. The overall dominant factor in determining the susceptibility to fracture resistance in hydrogen is the yield strength.

08 HYDROGEN↗
DOE OSTI2017

Force measurement-based discontinuity detection during friction stir welding

Here, the objective of this work is to develop a method for detecting the creation of discontinuities ( i.e. , voids, volume defects) during friction stir welding. Friction stir welding is inherently cost effective, however, the need for significant weld inspection can make the process cost prohibitive. A new approach to weld inspection is required in which an in situ characterization of weld quality can be obtained, reducing the need for postprocess inspection. To this end, friction stir welds with subsurface voids and without voids were created. The subsurface voids were generated by reducing the friction stir tool rotation frequency and increasing the tool traverse speed in order to create “colder” welds. Process forces were measured during welding, and the void sizes were measured postprocess by computerized tomography ( i.e. , 3D X-ray imaging). Two parameters, based on frequency domain content and time-domain average of the force signals, were found to be correlated with void size. Criteria for subsurface void detection and size prediction were developed and shown to be in good agreement with experimental observations. Furthermore, with the proper choice of data acquisition system and frequency analyzer the occurrence of subsurface voids can be detected in real time.

47 OTHER INSTRUMENTATION↗
DOE OSTI2017

Room temperature mechanical properties of electron beam welded zircaloy-4 sheet

Room temperature mechanical properties of electron beam welded and plain Zircaloy-4 sheet (1.6mm thick) have been measured and compared. Various welding parameters were utilized to join sheet material. Electron beam welded specimens and as-received sheet specimens show comparable mechanical properties. Zr-4 sheet displays anisotropy; tensile properties measured for transverse display higher elastic modulus, yield strength, reduction of area and slightly lower ductility than for the longitudinal (rolling direction). Higher welding power increases the alloy’s hardness, elastic modulus and yield strength, with a corresponding decrease in tensile strength and ductility. The hardness measured at weld is comparable to the parent metal hardness. Hardness at heat-affected-zone is slightly higher. Electron microscopic examination shows distinct microstructure morphology and grain size at the weld zone, HAZ and parent metal. A correlation between welding parameters, mechanical properties and microstructural features was established for electron beam welded Zircaloy-4 sheet material.

21 SPECIFIC NUCLEAR REACTORS AND ASSOCIATED PLANTS↗
DOE OSTI2018

A comparative research on bobbin tool and conventional friction stir welding of Al-Mg-Si alloy plates

Highlights: • 6061-T4 Al plates were successfully welded by both BT-FSW and C-FSW processes. • A wide welding parameter window was achieved with bobbin tool. • BT-FSW joints showed good strength similar to that of C-FSW joints. • Proving that an Isothermal Dissolution Layer Theory also apply to BT-FSW - Abstract: In our work, Al-Mg-Si (6061Al -T4) plates of 6 mm thickness were subjected to bobbin tool friction stir welding (BT-FSW) and conventional friction stir welding (C-FSW) for comparison. How the welding process affects the microstructure and mechanical properties was investigated at various rotation rates and welding speeds. The results showed that butt FSW joints with high quality could be produced at the selected parameters. The joint strength rose with enhanced welding speed and was nearly independent of the rotation rate in both the welding processes. The strength of the joints produced with BT-FSW reached the same level as that of the C-FSW. The maximum joint strength of 229 MPa was 93% of the base material (BM), which is superior to the reported results of 60–80% for the T4 condition. The fracture position of most of the joints was in the heat-affected zone (HAZ), which is the lowest hardness zone.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2018

Effect of niobium interlayer in dissimilar friction stir welding of aluminum to titanium

Highlights: • In the present study, FSW of Al to Ti with Nb interlayer has been characterized. • Fragmentation and distribution of Nb and Ti have been correlated with properties. • Ternary mixing and chemical reaction reduced the brittleness of the joint. • Al in the weld nugget showed a gradient in microstructural features. • The weld with Nb interlayer exhibited higher ductility. - Abstract: The most important issue associated with dissimilar welding is the formation of detrimental intermetallics and consequent reduction in mechanical properties of the weld. It was expected that addition of an interlayer would modify the pattern of the intermetallic formation. The present investigation deals with Friction Stir Welding of aluminum (Al) to titanium (Ti) in presence of niobium (Nb) interlayer. X-ray Computed Tomography results highlighted that fine particles of both Ti and Nb are homogeneously distributed. Large Ti particles are substantially fragmented whereas large Nb particles remain as flakes. Microstructural features of the nugget zone indicated a complex mixing of materials. Jointing had been perceived through elemental diffusion at the interfaces of Al/Ti and Ti/Nb. However, Nb restricted the reaction between Al and Ti, and acted as an efficient interlayer to retard the formation of brittle Al{sub 3}Ti intermetallic phase. Mechanisms of microstructural evolution in Al side of the weld have been identified as Dynamic Recovery, Dynamic Recrystallization and particle stimulated nucleation. Significant improvement in the tensile ductility had been observed due to the presence of finer particles. The presence of Nb in the weld nugget influences the microstructural evolution and tensile properties of the weld by reducing the formation of intermetallics.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2019

Nondestructive evaluation of resistance spot-welded Al-steel joints

With increasing demand for better fuel economy for automobiles, multimaterial solutions are increasingly being utilized in the automotive industry for reducing weight in the vehicle body structure. This poses challenges in terms of joining dissimilar metals, especially those with vastly different properties such as aluminum to steel joining. General Motors has developed a new resistance spot-welding technique for dissimilar materials using a multi-ring domed (MRD) electrode and multiple solidification weld schedules to address this challenge. Originally developed for aluminum to aluminum resistance spot welding, this technology is being enabled as the mainstream aluminum joining solution to leverage existing infrastructure and workforce competency in resistance spot welding. With the recent expansion of MRD technology to aluminum to steel resistance spot welding, there is an ever-greater need to experimentally verify the quality of each aluminum to steel resistance spot-weld application with limited time and resources. Nondestructive evaluation (NDE) would allow the transfer of resistance spot-welding technology to dissimilar aluminum to steel joints. This article describes the current state of the art of aluminum to steel resistance spot welding and the challenges in developing a robust NDE process for this technology.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2013

The Effect of Weld Residual Stress on Life of Used Nuclear Fuel Dry Storage Canisters

With the elimination of Yucca Mountain as the long-term storage facility for spent nuclear fuel in the United States, a number of other storage options are being explored. Currently, used fuel is stored in dry-storage cask systems constructed of steel and concrete. It is likely that used fuel will continue to be stored at existing open-air storage sites for up to 100 years. This raises the possibility that the storage casks will be exposed to a salt-containing environment for the duration of their time in interim storage. Austenitic stainless steels, which are used to construct the canisters, are susceptible to stress corrosion cracking (SCC) in chloride-containing environments if a continuous aqueous film can be maintained on the surface and the material is under stress. Because steel sensitization in the canister welds is typically avoided by avoiding post-weld heat treatments, high residual stresses are present in the welds. While the environment history will play a key role in establishing the chemical conditions for cracking, weld residual stresses will have a strong influence on both crack initiation and propagation. It is often assumed for modeling purposes that weld residual stresses are tensile, high and constant through the weld. However, due to the strong dependence of crack growth rate on stress, this assumption may be overly conservative. In particular, the residual stresses become negative (compressive) at certain points in the weld. The ultimate goal of this research project is to develop a probabilistic model with quantified uncertainties for SCC failure in the dry storage casks. In this paper, the results of a study of the residual stresses, and their postulated effects on SCC behavior, in actual canister welds are presented. Progress on the development of the model is reported.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2015

STRESS CORROSION CRACK GROWTH RESPONSE FOR ALLOY 152/52 DISSIMILAR METAL WELDS IN PWR PRIMARY WATER

As part of ongoing research into primary water stress corrosion cracking (PWSCC) susceptibility of alloy 690 and its welds, SCC tests have been conducted on alloy 152/52 dissimilar metal (DM) welds with cracks positioned with the goal to assess weld dilution and fusion line effects on SCC susceptibility. No increased crack growth rate was found when evaluating a 20% Cr dilution zone in alloy 152M joined to carbon steel (CS) that had not undergone a post-weld heat treatment (PWHT). However, high SCC crack growth rates were observed when the crack reached the fusion line of that material where it propagated both on the fusion line and in the heat affected zone (HAZ) of the carbon steel. Crack surface and crack profile examinations of the specimen revealed that cracking in the weld region was transgranular (TG) with weld grain boundaries not aligned with the geometric crack growth plane of the specimen. The application of a typical pressure vessel PWHT on a second set of alloy 152/52 – carbon steel DM weld specimens was found to eliminate the high SCC susceptibility in the fusion line and carbon steel HAZ regions. PWSCC tests were also performed on alloy 152-304SS DM weld specimens. Constant K crack growth rates did not exceed 5x10-9 mm/s in this material with post-test examinations revealing cracking primarily on the fusion line and slightly into the 304SS HAZ.

alloy 152↗
DOE OSTI2015

The Effect of Ar and N 2 Shielding Gas on Laser Weld Porosity in Steel, Stainless Steel, and Nickel

Complete, or near complete, elimination of porosity in 304L stainless steel keyhole laser welds was observed when using N2 instead of Ar shielding gas. Partial penetration autogeneous welds made at intermediate power levels of 2-4 kW using a CW fiber laser at travel speeds of 8-11 mm/s where porosity often occurs when using inert shielding gas. To investigate this effect further, laser welds were made in N 2 and Ar gas on three additional metals (A36 steel, 21-6-9 stainless steel, and pure nickel) that have varying properties and degrees of reactivity and solubilities with the shielding gasses. Optical metallography, x-ray radiography, and x-ray computed tomography were used to characterize the porosity levels in the welds. Results show that high levels of porosity occurred in nickel, regardless of shielding gas type, while low levels or no porosity was observed in 21-6-9 for either shielding gas. However, A36 and 304L exhibited porosity in all of the welds made with Ar, and very low or no porosity when made with N2. Computed tomography was used to quantify the porosity in selected welds, showing that the pore sizes are distributed in a monotonically decreasing trend that can be described by a two parameter Weibull relationship (β=0.5429, α=0.0366). Based on the results, it is believed that the reactivity of N 2 with alloying elements, and/or its solubility in the liquid weld pool, play a significant role in reducing the amount of retained porosity in unstable keyhole welds as they solidify and cool to room temperature.

Steel↗
DOE OSTI2013

Investigation of Structure and Crack Formation in Welded Joints of Single Crystal Ni-Base Alloys

Conditions of initiation of hot cracks in welding of single crystal heat-resistant alloys with a 56% content of the γ’-phase were studied. Conditions for providing a polycrystalline structure in HAZ and part of the weld metal were artificially created in one region of a welded joint with the single crystal structure. Welding of the single crystal alloy was performed by the electron beam method in vacuum. Cracks in a low-temperature ductility dip range (ductility dip cracking) were found to form in HAZ and weld of a welded joint with the polycrystalline structure. The nature of cracking of the single crystal weld is related to formation of low-melting point eutectoid interlayers, as well as to exhausting of the safety factor for ductility. In conclusion, cracks in the single crystal weld along the strain grain boundaries are formed by a similar mechanism.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2025

Time-Dependent 600 °C Post-Weld Heat Treatment Response of Laser-Wire-Directed Energy Deposited Austenitic Stainless Steel Claddings on Carbon Steel

Austenitic stainless steel overlay claddings are often used to protect nuclear reactor pressure vessels from corrosion. Arc welding processes are traditionally employed, which require a high heat input to bond the dissimilar metals, creating a large heat-affected zone and high residual stress that demands a lengthy stress-relieving post-weld heat treatment, up to 48 hours. High energy beam (e.g., laser, electron beam) directed energy deposition-based overlay cladding processes show promise for fabricating claddings with superior performance compared to arc welded ones because of their localized heat input; however, their necessity and time of post-weld heat treatment are currently unclear. In this research, we investigate the time dependence of a 600 C stress-relieving post-weld heat treatment of austenitic stainless steel clad on low carbon steel by laser-wire-directed energy deposition, comparing the microstructure and mechanical properties of the as-fabricated condition to 2-, 10-, and 48-hour heat treatment times. Diffusion simulations and microscopy show a gradual carburization of the stainless steel cladding and decarburization of the heat-affected zone/base metal. Nanoindentation testing shows up to a 1.8–2.69 embrittlement in the cladding and a 0.33 to 0.69 softening in the heat-affected zone after the 48-hour post-weld heat treatment. Tensile testing of the cladding composites reveals that increasing post-weld heat treatment time raises clad cracking susceptibility due to intergranular carbide formation and shows that laser-wire-directed energy deposition claddings may not require post-weld heat treatment.

Coating↗
DOE OSTI2014

Joint strength in high speed friction stir spot welded DP 980 steel

High speed friction stir spot welding was applied to 1.2 mm thick DP 980 steel sheets under different welding conditions, using PCBN tools. The range of vertical feed rates used during welding was 2.5 mm – 102 mm per minute, while the range of spindle speeds was 2500 – 6000 rpm. Extended testing was carried out for five different sets of welding conditions, until tool failure. These welding conditions resulted in vertical welding loads of 3.6 – 8.2 kN and lap shear tension failure loads of 8.9 – 11.1 kN. PCBN tools were shown, in the best case, to provide lap shear tension fracture loads at or above 9 kN for 900 spot welds, after which tool failure caused a rapid drop in joint strength. Joint strength was shown to be strongly correlated to bond area, which was measured from weld cross sections. Failure modes of the tested joints were a function of bond area and softening that occurred in the heat-affected zone.

DP980↗
DOE OSTI2024

Stress relaxation cracking susceptibility evaluation in 347H stainless steel welds

Abstract Stress relaxation cracking (SRC) has been reported as a dominant failure mechanism for 347H stainless steel welds at elevated service temperatures, occurring in either the heat-affected zone (HAZ) or fusion zone (FZ). In this study, SRC susceptibility of physically simulated HAZ and cross-welded E347-347H stainless steel welds was studied using a four-step accelerated SRC test with a thermomechanical physical simulator. The stress and temperature range studied represents weld-induced residual stress at 150–600 MPa and post-weld heat treatment temperatures between 800 and 1050 °C. For all temperature conditions, the cross-welded samples failed at a lower critical stress threshold than the simulated HAZ. A finite element model of a 50.8-mm-thick single-V groove weld was used to generate the residual stress maps induced by a 40-pass welding procedure, which in combination with the experimental threshold stress map predicted potential SRC failure locations. Postmortem microstructural evaluations were performed to identify contributing characteristics to SRC. It was found that HAZ samples exhibited a combination of creep void development, secondary cracks with intergranular fracture near grain boundary carbides, and eutectic phases. FZ samples showed brittle fracture with cracks propagating along straight, non-tortuous interdendritic grain boundaries.

42 ENGINEERING↗
DOE OSTI2022

Mechanical properties of fusion welded ceramics in the $\mathrm{SiC-ZrB}$ 2 and $\mathrm{SiC-ZrB}$ 2 -$\mathrm{ZrC}$ systems

Mechanical properties of welded SiC-ZrB 2 and SiC-ZrB 2 -ZrC ceramics were measured up to 1700 °C. Commercial powders were hot pressed, machined into coupons, and preheated to 1600 °C before joining the ceramics using either tungsten inert gas welding or plasma arc welding. Toughness of the parent materials was 3–4 MPa*m 1/2 which decreased after welding to 2–2.5 MPa*m 1/2 . Strength of the SiC-ZrB 2 -ZrC parent material was ~700 MPa at 25 °C, ~300 MPa at 1700 °C, and retained 40–60% of this strength once welded. Strength of the SiC-ZrB2 parent material was ~600 MPa at 25 °C and 1700 °C and retained 20–30% of this strength once welded. Griffith analysis indicated that the strength in the parent materials was controlled by the size of SiC clusters while strength of welds was controlled by the size of pores in fusion zones. Therefore, removal of pores in produced fusion zones should be investigated to improve strength of future ceramic welds.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2025

Spatial mapping of the localized corrosion behavior of a magnesium alloy AZ31B tungsten inert gas weld

Sections of a magnesium alloy, AZ31B, joined with tungsten inert gas (TIG) welding, were examined with scanning electrochemical microscopy (SECM) and scanning Kelvin probe force microscopy (SKPFM) to investigate corrosion mechanisms by correlating observed corrosion behavior with weld-affected microstructural variations. Insight into the changing nature of the galvanic couples between weld zones and at localized microgalvanic sites were investigated using SECM and SKPFM to map both electrochemically active regions and Volta potential differences across the weld-affected zones. The formation of an Al-Zn solidification network in the fusion zone (FZ) at and near the TIG weld epicenter differs from the outer heat-affected zone (HAZ), where intermetallic particles (IMPs) are the notable secondary phase from the magnesium matrix. These microstructures were mapped with SKPFM before and after brief exposure to a salt solution, revealing micro-galvanic couples as the main driving force to corrosion initiation and propagation within each zone. The IMPs and Al-Zn solidification network act as strong cathodes and govern the corrosion processes. The galvanic coupling and evolution of the intrinsic corrosion behavior between the weld zones is explained by monitoring the hydrogen evolution reaction (HER) with SECM over time. Anodically induced cathodic activation is confirmed for this welded material, as micro-galvanic couples between microstructural features are found to transition over time to broad electrochemically active areas within the weld-affected zones, resulting in polarity reversal as time of exposure proceeds.

Anodically induced cathodic activation↗
DOE OSTI2018

Transition of creep damage region in dissimilar welds between Inconel 740H Ni-based superalloy and P92 ferritic/martensitic steel

Highlights: • The fresh martensite formed in P92-sided CGHAZ during PWHT due to high Ni content. • Transition from type I to type IV cracking was observed with increasing temperature. • Creep damaged area changed depending on the dominant creep mechanism. • The transition value of Larson-Miller parameter would be within 25,063–26,168. - Abstract: Characterization of microstructures and creep fracture characteristics of dissimilar welds between Ni-based Inconel 740H superalloy and ferritic/martensitic P92 steel has been investigated. The welds were produced by shielded metal arc (SMA) welding process with the AWS A5.11 Class ENiCrFe-3 filler metal, commonly known as Inconel 182 superalloy. Postweld heat treatment (PWHT) at 760 °C for 4 h was conducted to temper the martensite in heat-affected zone (HAZ) of P92 and to form γ′ strengthener in Inconel 740H. The deposited Inconel 182 austenitic weld metal had a columnar microstructure, and grew epitaxially from the Inconel 740H base metal. The weld interface between P92 and weld metal was characterized by the discrete line with a minimal inter-diffusion, where the fresh untempered martensite was found to be formed during PWHT due to higher Ni contents diffused from Inconel 182 into P92. The P92 base metal and Inconel 182 weld metal displayed low hardness values (~240 Hv), and the sharp hardness increase was detected at coarse-grained HAZ of P92 while the hardness minimum occurred at the fine-grained HAZ (FGHAZ). Fracture location after creep was found to shift from the P92-sided fusion line to the FGHAZ of P92 with increasing creep temperature. The carbon migration from the P92 into the weld metal was not significant at lower creep temperature (600 °C), where the crack initiation at the P92-sided fusion line appeared to be related with a significant strain incompatibility across the fusion line. At both 650 °C and 700 °C where diffusion-controlled creep was more pronounced, the type IV cracking was observed. This may be attributed to the strain localization at the weak grain boundaries of FGHAZ due to the smaller grain size as well as the lack of grain boundary strengthening by carbides.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2014

Ultrasonic inspection of austenitic stainless steel welds with artificially produced stress corrosion cracks

Austenitic stainless steel welds and nickel alloy welds, which are widely used in nuclear power plants, present major challenges for ultrasonic inspection due to the grain structure in the weld. Large grains in combination with the elastic anisotropy of the material lead to increased scattering and affect sound wave propagation in the weld. This results in a reduced signal-to-noise ratio, and complicates the interpretation of signals and the localization of defects. Mechanized ultrasonic inspection was applied to study austenitic stainless steel test blocks with different types of flaws, including inter-granular stress corrosion cracks (IGSCC). The results show that cracks located in the heat affected zone of the weld are easily detected when inspection from both sides of the weld is possible. In cases of limited accessibility, when ultrasonic inspection can be carried out only from one side of a weld, it may be difficult to distinguish between signals from scattering in the weld and signals from cracks.

42 ENGINEERING↗
DOE OSTI2015

Measured Biaxial Residual Stress Maps in a Stainless Steel Weld

Here, this paper describes a sequence of residual stress measurements made to determine a two-dimensional map of biaxial residual stress in a stainless steel weld. A long stainless steel (316L) plate with an eight-pass groove weld (308L filler) was used. The biaxial stress measurements follow a recently developed approach, comprising a combination of contour method and slitting measurements, with a computation to determine the effects of out-of-plane stress on a thin slice. The measured longitudinal stress is highly tensile in the weld- and heat-affected zone, with a maximum around 450 MPa, and compressive stress toward the transverse edges around ₋250 MPa. The total transverse stress has a banded profile in the weld with highly tensile stress at the bottom of the plate (y = 0) of 400 MPa, rapidly changing to compressive stress (at y = 5 mm) of ₋200 MPa, then tensile stress at the weld root (y = 17 mm) and in the weld around 200 MPa, followed by compressive stress at the top of the weld at around ₋150 MPa. Finally, the results of the biaxial map compare well with the results of neutron diffraction measurements and output from a computational weld simulation.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗