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Search indexed NASA NTRS and DOE OSTI research on propulsion, heat transfer, battery materials and energy systems. Follow report and document links to the original sources.

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At least 415 records · Page 23
All sourcesNASA NTRSDOE OSTI
DOE OSTI2022

Economic feasibility of in-motion wireless power transfer in a high-density traffic corridor

Electricity is expected to become a dominant power source in the transportation sector, but under a stationary recharging model, electric powered vehicles still suffer some disadvantages relative to conventional vehicles. Recent developments in wireless power transfer (WPT) technology can enable an alternative vehicle recharging model wherein power is supplied to vehicles while they are moving, mitigating the need for charging stops and high-capacity on-board energy storage. One of the greatest concerns associated with dynamic WPT is that the required infrastructure costs would be prohibitively high; however, the life-cycle costs and benefits of such a system have been under-researched. Here in this work, we apply a systems-level assessment to a case study of a WPT charging system located on the densely trafficked I-710 corridor in Los Angeles, California. Detailed cost estimates for electronics and implementation, high-fidelity energy consumption modeling, and survey-derived adoption projections are applied to evaluate scenarios of economic feasibility and environmental impact. Results show that a “1st-of-a-kind” system can achieve a payback in 20 years while maintaining operating cost advantages relative to petroleum fueling. System economics are shown to improve substantially with “nth-of-a-kind” capital costs. Discussion focuses on the effect of uptake trajectory on economic viability and detailed economics outcomes for light duty and heavy duty vehicles.

29 ENERGY PLANNING, POLICY, AND ECONOMY↗
DOE OSTI2025

Total cost of ownership of vehicle electrification and fuel switching options for light-duty and heavy-duty vehicles

Projecting the transition from combustion engines to battery-based powertrains is complex becuase it involves numerous interdependent decisions. This study estimates total cost of ownership (TCO) to assess the economic viability of powertrain electrification, focusing exclusively on advances in vehicle and fuel technologies. Under two bounding technology-progress scenarios, we develop vehicle designs and fuel cost trajectories, which serve as inputs to TCO projections for selected classes from 2021 to 2050. We analyzed a small sport utility vehicle (SUV) to represent the light-duty vehicle (LDV) sector, and four medium- and heavy-duty vehicle (MHDV) classes: Class 6 box delivery, Class 8 drayage, Class 8 long-haul, and Class 8 transit bus. For each class, we compared the TCO of battery electric vehicles (BEVs) and fuel cell hybrid electric vehicles (FCHEVs) against conventional internal combustion engine vehicles (ICEVs). The results show that modern ICEVs generally have lower TCO; however, BEVs and FCHEVs could match or have lower TCOs than ICEVs over time, depending on technological progress. In LDVs, BEV300 is projected to deliver the lowest TCO by 2050, particularly under the high-progress scenario. In MHDVs, both BEVs and FCHEVs could become more cost-competitive than ICEVs by 2050 in the high-progress case. Beyond these results, the findings suggest further investigation is warranted for BEV charging infrastructure, FCHEV hydrogen refueling infrastructure, and MHDV charging strategies. In conclusion, these factors could reduce the fuel-cost share of TCO and enhance the competitiveness of BEVs and FCHEVs relative to ICEVs.

Battery electric vehicle↗
DOE OSTI2026

Daily operational impacts on battery degradation in heavy-duty electric drayage trucks

Battery aging is a critical factor influencing the performance, longevity, and cost of ownership of battery electric trucks (BETs). This paper presents a comprehensive evaluation of battery aging for two Li-ion battery chemistries, Nickel-Manganese-Cobalt (NMC) and Lithium-Iron-Phosphate (LFP), accounting for both cycling and calendar aging. In contrast to traditional methods that rely on simplified linear degradation models based on manufacturer-provided data, this study employs semi-empirical aging models calibrated to experimentally collected data. The models are integrated into a detailed vehicle simulation environment, enabling a comprehensive assessment of battery degradation under realistic operating conditions. A case study focusing on heavy-duty electric drayage truck operations in the Port of Savannah, GA, is presented to illustrate the impact on battery pack lifespan of: seasonal variations, daily operational activities, charging strategies, and battery storage conditions. The results illuminate the significance of the battery pack’s state of charge during stationary periods, such as overnight storage or weekend parking, on battery degradation and its potential implications for long-term vehicle viability. Additionally, the study explores how different operational and environmental factors affect battery degradation, offering critical insights into best battery charging and storage practices. Our results demonstrate that LFP outperforms NMC in terms of years of useful life; however, by utilizing charging strategies that minimize the amount of time the battery spends resting at high levels of state-of-charge, the lifespan of the battery pack that uses NMC can nonetheless be increased by more than a factor of two.

25 ENERGY STORAGE↗
DOE OSTI2023

A renewable lignin-based thermoplastic adhesive for steel joining

Adhesive bonding of metals has become increasingly relevant in recent years due to the demand for reducing weight and improving performance in structural applications such as automobiles and aerospace. We developed renewable thermoplastic adhesives from technical organosolv lignin isolated from hardwood biomass and acrylonitrile butadiene co-polymer rubber (NBR) for joining steel substrates. NBR33, NBR41 and NBR51 with acrylonitrile molar ratios of 33, 41 and 51%, respectively, were blended with lignin to form two-phase thermoplastic adhesives, and their adhesion, viscoelastic and surface properties were measured. Lignin content in the compositions were varied, ranging from 40% to 80% (w/w), to alter toughness, stiffness, and surface energy characteristics of the material. Better interaction or reactivity between the lignin and NBR phases was observed with greater nitrile content in NBR, leading to greater modulus and stiffness of the adhesive. Simultaneously, increasing the proportion of lignin reduced toughness and improved stiffness, with the highest adhesive strength of 13.1 MPa measured in a 60% lignin loading ratio with NBR51. Surface energy measurements revealed that total surface energy (sum of polar and dispersive surface energy) raised with lignin loading, suggesting that both surface energy and matrix strength play a critical role in the adhesive properties of the synthesized materials. A finite element-based cohesive zone model (CZM) was developed and implemented to study the failure strength of the adhesively bonded joint. Here, this study demonstrates the viability of lignin as a valuable building block for adhesives, not only due to its inherent chemical structure and rigidity, but also for its surface energy characteristics.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2022

siRNA high throughput screening identifies regulators of chloropicrin and hydrogen fluoride injury in human corneal epithelial cell models

Corneal injuries induced by various toxicants result in similar clinical presentations such as corneal opacity and neovascularization. Many studies suggest that several weeks post-exposure a convergence of the molecular mechanisms drives these progressive pathologies. However, chemical agents vary in toxicological properties, and early molecular responses are anticipated to be somewhat dissimilar for different toxicants. In this report we chose 3120 targets from the Dharmacon Human Druggable genome to screen for chloropicrin (CP) and hydrogen fluoride (HF) corneal injury as we hypothesized that targets identified in vitro may be effective as therapeutic targets in future studies. Human immortalized corneal epithelial cells (SV40-HCEC) were used for screening. Cell viability and IL-8 were analyzed to down-select hits into validation studies, where multiplex cytokine analysis and high content analysis were performed to understand toxicant effect and target function. Some endpoints were also evaluated in a second human immortalized corneal epithelial cell line, TCEpi. Over 20 targets entered validation studies for CP and HF; of these, only three targets were shared: NR3C1, RELA, and KMT5A. These findings suggest that early molecular responses to different toxicants may be somewhat distinctive and present dissimilar targets for possible early intervention.

60 APPLIED LIFE SCIENCES↗
DOE OSTI2020

Feasibility of using thermal response methods for nonintrusive compressed air flow measurement

Robust, low-cost nonintrusive flow meters are of interest in many industries. Particularly, a reliable nonintrusive flow measurement for the diagnosis of air leaks in compressed air systems is desirable. Measurement of the air flow due to leaks in the system ensures an accurate estimation of potential cost and energy savings. This study evaluates a novel method of using thermal responses to nonintrusively measure leakage rates in compressed air lines. The method uses heat and the resulting thermal response to calculate the flow rate inside the compressed air line. Compared to the current methods for flow measurement, this method can simplify flow measurement while decreasing the sensitivity to errors when measuring flow rates. In this study, the methodology of the proposed method is explained along with the potential advantages to the design. Two approaches are evaluated: a dynamic step response and sinusoidal frequency response. Simulated tests evaluate the feasibility of the proposed methods, followed by experiments that validate the simulation results. A clear correlation between the thermal step response and the flow rate indicate viability of the proposed method in simulation. Experimental results yielded similar results, confirming the validity of the proposed method. The results of a field test in an industrial environment demonstrate the capability of the approach to other flow rate measurement techniques.

42 ENGINEERING↗
DOE OSTI2020

Empirical correlations for prediction of minimum miscible pressure and near-miscible pressure interval for oil and CO 2 systems

Although near-miscible CO 2 flooding has recently received considerable attention, no criteria are available to predict its applicability to a specific reservoir. Evaluating the viability of near-miscible flooding requires experimental exploration of a specific region in pressure–temperature space. The near-miscible pressure field is bounded on one side in P, T space by the MMP (minimum miscible pressure). This paper provides robust empirical correlations to estimate the MMP for both pure and impure CO 2 and for prediction of the near-miscible pressure region for CO 2 -oil. Many slim tube analyses, lacking high density data points, systematically underestimate the MMP, when the near miscible region is not accounted for. They are based on 147 published data sets that include: slim tube experimental determination of MMP; interfacial tension (IFT) between oil and CO 2 ; concentration of solution gas; and purity of the CO 2 . This paper is the first to begin a systematic exploration of the pressure-temperature space within which near-miscible effects characterize CO 2 floods. Our new correlations provide a basis for identifying and investigating the nature of near miscible effects associated with existing CO 2 floods. For a case study of an offshore field we determined that lower and upper pressure boundaries for effective near-miscible flooding, are 0.87 MMP and 1.07 MMP at reservoir temperatures. The proposed model is the first empirical correlation for the prediction of near-miscible pressure region, it will provide the basis for both screening the relative potential of oil reservoirs for economically viable miscible or near-miscible CO 2 -flooding.

42 ENGINEERING↗
DOE OSTI2024

Sustainable valorization of waste tires: Selective hydrotreating for renewable p-cymene production

The escalating global concern over waste tire management driven by the surge in automobiles necessitates sustainable and innovative solutions. Here, this study posits a novel approach by introducing a selective catalytic hydrogenation and dehydrogenation process using a tandem two-stage pressurized fixed-bed reactor, aiming to convert waste tires into valuable sulfur-free p-cymene. The experimental results indicate that among the studied catalysts including Pt/C, Pd/C, Ru/C, and Ni/Al 2 O 3 -SiO 2 , the Pd/C exhibits concomitant hydrogenation and dehydrogenation functionalities, achieving full conversion and displaying 100 % selectivity towards p-cymene from limonene model compound. Furthermore, the Pd/C catalyst demonstrates remarkable efficiency in converting real-world waste tires into p-cymene, yielding up to 134.8 mg/g at optimal conditions. Importantly, this catalyst also facilitates complete hydrodesulfurization activity, addressing environmental concerns by producing sulfur-free liquid products. This innovative method not only optimizes p-cymene synthesis from waste tires but also contributes to environmental sustainability, showcasing both economic and ecological viability.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗
DOE OSTI2025

Hydrogen-rich syngas production from the steam co-gasification of low-density polyethylene and coal refuse

Gasification provides a promising pathway for transforming waste materials into valuable products, such as fuels and chemicals. Here, this study investigates the steam co-gasification of low-density polyethylene (LDPE) and compressed thickener underflow, representative of coal refuse (CR), in a drop tube reactor. The effects of feed blend ratio (0–100 wt% LDPE) and temperature (800–1000 °C) on syngas composition, tar formation, and process efficiency are examined. The high volatility of LDPE makes it more reactive than CR but also promotes the formation of 2–7 ring aromatic tars. Increasing temperature improves carbon conversion efficiency (CCE), cold gas efficiency (CGE), and syngas yield, although the lower heating value (LHV) of syngas decreases. Hydrogen is the dominant gas product, reaching 59 vol% with the H 2 /CO molar ratio ranging from 2.27 to 4.74. Synergistic effects from alkali and alkali earth metals (AAEMs), particularly K and Ca, in CR ash enhance syngas yield by catalyzing char gasification and tar cracking. Hematite (Fe 2 O 3 ) and ash from sub-bituminous/bituminous coals are explored as tar reforming catalysts. Fe 2 O 3 achieves 100 % tar reforming efficiency, while coal ash, with a lower Fe 2 O 3 content (15 wt%), is less effective at cracking polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, particularly naphthalene. These findings demonstrate the flexibility of co-gasification, allowing precise tuning of syngas characteristics for specific downstream applications. Further optimization of waste-derived catalysts could enhance the economic viability of gasification in waste-to-energy processes.

01 COAL, LIGNITE, AND PEAT↗
DOE OSTI2025

Photoionization of seeded combustion products as a method of enhancing the efficiency of magnetohydrodynamic power generators

Here, in this study, we performed an experimental and computational investigation into the feasibility of utilizing photoionization to enhance the electrical conductivity of seeded oxy-fuel combustion products and improve the performance of magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) power generators. We applied a variety of optical and microwave diagnostics to study the ionization and recombination processes of potassium excited by an excimer laser in a high-velocity oxy-fuel free jet. Computational fluid dynamic (CFD) simulations were performed to model the thermophysical properties and species densities of the free jet. The CFD results were validated with position-dependent potassium concentration measurements. Electron recombination exponential lifetimes were measured through time-resolved microwave transmission. The experimental electron lifetimes were compared with lifetimes calculated from CFD-predicted species densities and literature recombination rates. It was determined that K + or O 2 are the most likely recombination partners for photoionized electrons. Time-resolved fluorescence measurements provided evidence of an ionization pathway involving a two-photon ionization of KOH . Finally, a zero-dimensional chemical kinetic model was developed to assess the fundamental viability of inducing a non-equilibrium electron population to provide a net energy return in combustion-driven MHD power generators. We determined that a high energy return is feasible for targeting electrode boundary layers with ultraviolet photoionization. We also found that photoionization could potentially lower the required temperature of the bulk gas flow.

20 FOSSIL-FUELED POWER PLANTS↗
DOE OSTI2026

Catalytic monoterpenes conversion over Pd and zeolite to sustainable aviation fuel

Waste terpenes from wood drying are typically processed using a Regenerative Thermal Oxidizer (RTO) and converted to CO2 which is then released to the atmosphere. A novel alternative to this approach is to capture these terpenes using Fluidized Bed Concentrator (FBC) technology developed by CaptisAire which provides a useful waste carbon feedstock for subsequent upgrading. We have developed a catalytic approach where these waste terpenes (comprised of pinenes, limonene, and camphene), are converted to aromatic, and cycloalkane hydrocarbons suitable for use as a Sustainable Aviation Fuel (SAF) blendstock without the need for additional hydrogen. This provides a renewable source for aviation fuel aromatics and increases the potential blend content of renewably sourced alkanes from Hydroprocessed Esters and Fatty Acids (HEFA) and Alcohol to Jet (ATJ) processes. Terpenes were converted in a batch reactor at 260 °C and 120 psi N2 using a combination of Pd/C and H-BEA zeolite. Experimental results infer the role of the zeolite Brønsted acid to facilitate isomerization of pinenes and camphene to limonene, which then undergoes subsequent dehydro-aromatization to p-cymene using Pd/C. Hydrogen release from the dehydro-aromatization process, enables inert conversion of monoterpenes to cycloalkanes without additional hydrogen. Monoterpenes conversion to C10 aromatics (60%) and C10 cycloalkanes (40%) in an inert environment, provides a viable route for SAF blendstock sourced directly from captured waste terpenes. Transition to commercial off-the-shelf catalysts, facilitates scale-up of the terpene conversion process and improves commercial viability. We subsequently created hydrocarbon blends using HEFA or ATJ and converted terpenes, providing a 100% SAF blend with potential to replace traditional Jet-A.

Lawal, Ajibola [ORNL] (ORCID:0000000187266570)↗
DOE OSTI2024

Optimal control of the electron temperature profile in DIII-D using machine learning surrogate models

The viability of the tokamak as a potential fusion reactor depends on the ability to keep the plasma in a stable regime while achieving temperatures, densities, and confinement times that are as high as possible. Tokamak scenario development attempts to find plasma regimes that achieve all of these conditions and are accessible with a given set of hardware constraints. This requires the ability to control plasma properties such as the normalized beta, the internal inductance, safety factor, rotation, etc. One property that has received less attention than some of the others, but is no less critical to achieving high performance, is the electron temperature (T e ) profile. In this work, Linear Quadratic Integral (LQI) control is used to develop a controller for the electron temperature profile in DIII-D. The controller is based on a linearized model derived from the transport equation that describes the evolution of the electron temperature, and includes contributions from the neural network surrogate models NubeamNet and MMMnet. Furthermore, the controller is tested in simulation using COTSIM, and is proven capable of tracking a target T e profile.

70 PLASMA PHYSICS AND FUSION TECHNOLOGY↗
DOE OSTI2025

The spherical tokamak advanced reactor (STAR) fusion power plant design

Scientific and technical advancements have been made that improve fusion’s prospects to provide a new energy source, showing enhanced plasma confinement conditions with plasma temperatures reaching or exceeding 100 million degrees. Overshadowing this progress is the challenge involved in developing an economically viable fusion power plant design. Many proposed next-step DEMO and pilot plant designs are extensions of existing physics-focused experimental devices defined to understand and control plasma operations to achieve and sustain a fusion reaction. Transitioning scientific and technical advancements into a functional power plant requires a dedicated focus on architectural designs that integrate diverse technologies, while optimizing physics conditions, with a focus on economic viability. This holistic approach is essential in turning the promise of fusion energy into a reality. The Spherical Tokamak Advanced Reactor (STAR) is a fusion power plant conceptual design with the architectural focus that strives to balance physics, engineering, and cost considerations. In conclusion, it has been set up to introduce relevant physics, engineering and concept features that an intermediate pilot plant might follow, with the goal of meeting system performances and economic requirements that lead to a commercially competitive fusion power plant.

Blanket segmentation↗
DOE OSTI2026

End-To-End Decentralized Transmission Line Protection in IBR-Dominated Weak Grids Using Interpretable Data-Driven Methods

Traditional transmission line protection relies on predictable synchronous-based fault signatures, which frequently fail under the non-standard, current-limited fault characteristics of Inverter-Based Resources (IBRs). This study investigates how to achieve secure, communication-free fault isolation in IBR-dominated weak grids without relying on opaque, computationally heavy "black-box" machine learning algorithms. To address this, we propose a novel, standalone, and inherently interpretable data-driven protection framework. Unlike centralized methods requiring multi-terminal communication, this decentralized approach relies solely on local measurements using a hierarchical linear-kernel Support Vector Machine (SVM). The methodology decomposes the protection task into four sequential stages that mimic traditional protection elements: fault detection and fault direction identification, fault type classification, zone classification, and location estimation. This multi-stage architecture allows for specialized feature engineering at each stage, combining high computational efficiency with logic traceability. The framework's end-to-end performance was validated via C-code and PSCAD/EMTDC co-simulation, utilizing a real-world utility network and an OEM black-box IBR model. The proposed relay achieves 97.2% overall accuracy and provides a reliable trip decision within a 2.5-cycle window. The results confirm 100% accuracy in fundamental fault detection, reliable zone selectivity across low to moderate fault resistances, and robust security against non-fault transients, proving its immediate viability for integration into commercial numerical relays.

24 POWER TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION↗
DOE OSTI2023

Listeria monocytogenes loss of cultivability on carrot is associated with the formation of mesosome-like structures

Raw carrot is known to have antimicrobial activity against Listeria monocytogenes, but the mechanism of action has not been fully elucidated. In this study, we examined carrot antilisterial activity against several strains of Listeria species (including L. grayi, L. innocua, L. seeligeri, and L. welshimeri) and L. monocytogenes. A representative strain of L. monocytogenes was subsequently used for further characterizing carrot antilisterial activity. Exposure to fresh-cut carrot for 15 min resulted in a similar loss of cultivability, ranging from 2.5 to 4.7 log units, across all Listeria strains evaluated. L. monocytogenes recovered from the fresh-cut surface of different raw carrots was 1.6 to 4.1 log lower than levels obtained from paired boiled carrot samples with abolished antilisterial activity. L. monocytogenes levels recovered from fresh-cut carrot were 2.8 to 3.1 log lower when enumerated by culture-dependent methods than by the culture-independent method of PMAxx-qPCR, a qPCR assay that is performed using DNA pre-treated to selectively sequester DNA from cells with injured membranes. These results suggested that L. monocytogenes loss of cultivability on fresh-cut carrot was not associated with a loss of L. monocytogenes cell membrane integrity and putative cell viability. Transmission electron microscopy imaging revealed that L. monocytogenes rapidly formed mesosome-like structures upon exposure to carrot fresh-cut surface but not upon exposure to boiled carrot surface, suggesting there may be an association between the formation of these mesosome-like structures and a loss of cultivability in L. monocytogenes. As a result, further research is necessary to conclude the causality of this association.

59 BASIC BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES↗
DOE OSTI2020

Application of emerging monitoring techniques at the Illinois Basin – Decatur Project

The Illinois Basin – Decatur Project is a large-scale carbon capture and storage demonstration project located in Decatur, Illinois, USA. In this project, one million metric tons of carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) was captured from an ethanol production facility and successfully injected into a deep saline reservoir over a period of three years. The scale of this project presented an opportunity to explore emerging technologies for effective long-term monitoring of the carbon capture and storage site. This research documents the application of three emerging monitoring techniques: (1) a prototype “open-path” sensor, a method of continuously monitoring atmospheric CO 2 by applying tunable diode laser absorption spectroscopy to provide a warning system for personnel safety along pipelines and at wellheads; (2) the Greenhouse Gas Laser Imaging Tomography Experiment (GreenLITE), an automated system for measuring two-dimensional spatial distribution of atmospheric CO 2 concentrations; and (3) periodic aerial imagery, a method of documenting surface-vegetation dynamics to detect vegetative responses to CO 2 leaks. The objective of this work was to assess the advantages and limitations of these monitoring techniques and quantify their reliability over an extended deployment at an active industrial site. These results will aid in determining viability of long-term monitoring on a commercial scale.

42 ENGINEERING↗
DOE OSTI2025

Experimental characterization of a triply periodic minimal surface PCM-to-air thermal energy storage device

Here, the expansion of energy production has intensified research into thermal energy storage (TES) to manage variability and improve system efficiency. Heat exchanger design is critical to achieving high power densities in TES systems. This study presents a high-surface-area phase change material (PCM)-to-air heat exchanger fabricated via resin-based stereolithography with a novel gyroid-based geometry tailored for enhanced performance. Material properties of the commercial PCM and resin were characterized using analytical techniques. A controlled air loop was used to evaluate heat transfer and pressure drop at various flow rates and inlet temperatures. Results show a strong dependence on the inlet temperature difference (ΔT) relative to the PCM melting point. During charging at the highest flow rate, increasing the inlet air temperature from ΔT = 5 °C to 20 °C above the melting point increased the average heat transfer rate by 187%. During discharging, decreasing the inlet temperature by the same ΔT below the melting point led to a 232% increase. Notably, the high-surface-area design enabled nearly symmetric charging and discharging behavior, a novel result for PCM-based TES systems which are often restricted by natural convection and other effects. The overall heat transfer coefficient was calculated and compared to values from standard design correlations. The maximum thermal effectiveness reached 95% at ΔT = 20 °C and a moderate flow rate of 34 m 3 /h. Peak coefficients of performance (COP) of 7 during charging and 6.4 during discharging were observed at ΔT = 20 °C and a low flow rate of 20 m 3 /h. These results demonstrate the viability of additively manufactured geometries for advanced TES applications.

25 ENERGY STORAGE↗
DOE OSTI2024

Material analysis of metal hydrides for bulk hydrogen storage

The United States Department of Energy (DOE) Hydrogen Storage Engineering Center of Excellence (HSECoE), 2009–2014, was established to evaluate the viability of material-based hydrogen storage for light duty vehicles. The HSECoE concluded that there were no metal hydrides that simultaneously met the DOE targets for gravimetric and volumetric capacity, and rate of onboard refueling. However, it was noted by the DOE that potential applications existed for stationary hydrogen storage systems. An application of particular interest is using a metal-hydride to store a hydrogen supply for fuel cell backup power to a 5 MWe data center. A generalized numerical model that coupled mass and energy conservation, chemical kinetics and thermodynamics was developed to simulate the discharge process for a given metal-hydride. The model was applied to an interstitial and a complex metal-hydride. In conclusion, it was found that the interstitial metal-hydride, which is discharged by a pressure swing is preferrable in a practical sense to the complex metal-hydride, which requires a temperature swing discharge process.

08 HYDROGEN↗