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387 records · Page 22
All sourcesNASA NTRSDOE OSTI
DOE OSTI2020

Iodate interactions with calcite: implications for natural attenuation

Solid-phase interactions and speciation are important to radioiodine transport in groundwater. At the Hanford Site in Southeastern Washington State, iodate (IO 3 - ) is the main aqueous species in dilute radioiodine groundwater plumes. Like other oxyanions, IO 3 - may be incorporated into and/or adsorbed onto calcite, a common mineral at Hanford, decreasing its mobility in the environment. A series of macroscale batch experiments combined with solid phase characterization were conducted to identify variables impacting time-dependent aqueous IO 3 - removal via calcite precipitation and determine the location of IO 3 - within the calcite crystal structure. Results demonstrated 11.5-97% aqueous IO 3 - removal during initial rapid calcite precipitation. Incorporation was apparently the main removal mechanism, although later slower precipitation and/or adsorption may have also contributed to IO 3 - removal. Using a higher concentration of the calcite forming solutions (i.e., using 1M vs. 0.1M concentrations) resulted in an increase in the amount of precipitated calcite and a greater percentage of IO 3 - removed; however, calcite formed with lower molarity solutions resulted in higher IO 3 - mass (µg/g) removal. Solubility testing of laboratory produced calcites showed only small differences in solubility for calcite with and without IO 3 - incorporated into the structure. Evidence collected from SEM/FIB and TEM/SAED suggested that the IO 3 - incorporated into calcite was present in regions close to surface (implying potential easy release upon calcite dissolution).

12 MANAGEMENT OF RADIOACTIVE AND NON-RADIOACTIVE W↗
NASA NTRS2011

Automated Cryocooler Monitor and Control System

A system was designed to automate cryogenically cooled low-noise amplifier systems used in the NASA Deep Space Network. It automates the entire operation of the system including cool-down, warm-up, and performance monitoring. The system is based on a single-board computer with custom software and hardware to monitor and control the cryogenic operation of the system. The system provides local display and control, and can be operated remotely via a Web interface. The system controller is based on a commercial single-board computer with onboard data acquisition capability. The commercial hardware includes a microprocessor, an LCD (liquid crystal display), seven LED (light emitting diode) displays, a seven-key keypad, an Ethernet interface, 40 digital I/O (input/output) ports, 11 A/D (analog to digital) inputs, four D/A (digital to analog) outputs, and an external relay board to control the high-current devices. The temperature sensors used are commercial silicon diode devices that provide a non-linear voltage output proportional to temperature. The devices are excited with a 10-microamp bias current. The system is capable of monitoring and displaying three temperatures. The vacuum sensors are commercial thermistor devices. The output of the sensors is a non-linear voltage proportional to vacuum pressure in the 1-Torr to 1-millitorr range. Two sensors are used. One measures the vacuum pressure in the cryocooler and the other the pressure at the input to the vacuum pump. The helium pressure sensor is a commercial device that provides a linear voltage output from 1 to 5 volts, corresponding to a gas pressure from 0 to 3.5 MPa (approx. = 500 psig). Control of the vacuum process is accomplished with a commercial electrically operated solenoid valve. A commercial motor starter is used to control the input power of the compressor. The warm-up heaters are commercial power resistors sized to provide the appropriate power for the thermal mass of the particular system, and typically provide 50 watts of heat. There are four basic operating modes. "Cool " mode commands the system to cool to normal operating temperature. "Heat " mode is used to warm the device to a set temperature near room temperature. "Pump " mode is a maintenance function that allows the vacuum system to be operated alone to remove accumulated contaminants from the vacuum area. In "Off " mode, no power is applied to the system.

Britcliffe, Michael J.↗
NASA NTRS1996

The Surfaces of Pluto and Charon

Much of the surface of Pluto consists of high-albedo regions covered to an unknown depth by Beta-N2, contaminated with CH4, CO, and other molecules. A portion of the exposed surface appears to consist of solid H2O. The remainder is covered by lower albedo material of unknown composition. The N2 ice may occur as polar caps of large extent, leaving ices and other solids of lower volatility in the equatorial regions. The low-albedo material found primarily in the equatorial regions may consist in part of solid hydrocarbons and nitriles produced from N2 and CH4 in the atmosphere or in the surface ices. Alternatively, it may arise from deposition from impacting bodies and/or the chemistry of the impact process itself. Charon's surface is probably more compositionally uniform than that of Pluto, and is covered by H2O ice with possible contaminants or exposures of other materials that are as yet unidentified. The molecular ices discovered on Pluto and Charon have been identified from near-infrared spectra obtained with Earth-based telescopes. The quantitative interpretation of those data has been achieved through the computation of synthetic spectra using the Hapke scattering theory and the optical constants of various ices observed in the laboratory. Despite limitations imposed by the availability of laboratory data on ices in various mixtures, certain specific results have been obtained. It appears that CH4 and CO are trace constituents, and that some fraction of the CH4 (and probably the CO) on Pluto is dissolved in the matrix of solid N2. Pure CH4 probably also occurs on Pluto's surface, allowing direct access to the atmosphere. Study of the nitrogen absorption band at 2.148 micrometers shows that the temperature of the N2 in the present epoch is 40 +/-2 K. The global temperature regime of Pluto can be modeled from observations of the thermal flux at far-infrared and millimeter wavelengths. The low-albedo equatorial regions must be significantly warmer than the polar regions covered by N2 (at T = 40 K) to account for the total thermal flux measured. At the present season, the diurnal skin depth of the insolation-driven thermal wave is small, and the observed mm-wave fluxes may arise from a greater depth. Alternatively, the mm-wave flux may arise from the cool, sublimation source region. The surface microstructure in the regions covered by N2 ice is likely governed by the sintering properties of this highly volatile material. The observed nitrogen infrared band strength requires that expanses of the surface be covered with cm-sized crystals of N2. Grains of H2O ice on Charon, in contrast, are probably of order 50 micrometers in size, and do not metamorphose into larger grains at a significant rate. Because of the similarities in size, density, atmosphere and surface composition between Pluto and Neptune's satellite Triton, the surface structures observed by Voyager on Triton serve as a plausible paradigm for what might be expected on Pluto. Such crater forms, tectonic structures, aeolian features, cryovolcanic structures, and sublimation-degraded topography as are eventually observed on Pluto and Charon by spacecraft will give information on their interior compositions and structures, as well as on the temperature and wind regimes over the planet's extreme seasonal cycle.

Cruikshank, Dale P.↗
DOE OSTI2023

Exploring the Role of Neutral 4-Amino-1,2,4-triazole in the Formation of Hexanuclear f-Element Hydrolysis Products

Our recent observations of an unexpected Ce(III) hydrolysis product from the reaction of 4-amino-1,2,4-triazole (4-NH 2 -1,2,4-Triaz) with CeCl 3 ·7H 2 O, [Ce 6 (μ 3 -O) 4 (μ 3 -OH) 2 (μ 3 -Cl) 2 (Cl) 6 (μ 2 -4-NH 2 -1,2,4-Triaz) 12 ]·7H 2 O, the first high-nuclearity lanthanide complex where all Ln atoms are connected pairwise through 12 N-donor ligands or 12 neutral bridging ligands of any type, prompted us to explore the utility of this ligand in trapping additional f-element examples. Reactions of LnCl 3 ·6H 2 O (Ln = Nd, Eu, Ho) with a large excess of 4-NH 2 -1,2,4-Triaz (20 equiv) and with the addition of small amounts of water to help solubilize the metal salts led to the isolation of the unique hydrolysis products [Nd 6 (μ 3 -OH) 8 Cl 6 (μ 2 -4-NH 2 -1,2,4-Triaz) 12 ][Cl 4 ]·2H 2 O, [Eu 6 (μ 6 -Cl) 0.23 (μ 3 -O 0.77 ) 4 (μ 3 -O) 2.6 (μ 3 -Cl) 0.4 Cl 6 (μ 2 -4-NH 2 -1,2,4-Triaz) 12 ], and [Ho 6 (μ 6 -Cl) 0.21 (μ 3 -O 0.79 ) 4 (μ 3 -OH) 2 Cl 6 (μ 2 -4-NH 2 -1,2,4-Triaz) 12 ][Cl] 3.4 . Here, we also report a Ce(III) analogue prepared in glassware contaminated with Pb(OAc) 2 , namely, [Ce 6 (μ 3 -OH) 8 (BrPbBr 5 )(μ 2 -4-NH 2 -1,2,4-Triaz) 11.5 (OH 2 ) 6 ][Pb 0.84 Br 4.2 ][Br] 3.8 ·2(4-NH 2 -1,2,4-Triaz)·3.6H 2 O. The Nd(III) complex is the structurally most ordered with a clear [Nd 6 (μ 3 -OH) 8 ] cluster core, while the Eu(III) and Ho(III) compounds contain partial occupancy of a μ 6 position and thus result in an incomplete Ln 6 O 9 cluster core formation. The crystallographic results suggest that the 4-NH 2 -1,2,4-Triaz ligand brings Ln(III) ions together, followed by the formation of an Ln 6 O 8 or Ln 6 O 9 core with whatever remaining anions or ligands can be incorporated. Given the complexity of the hydrolysis products of nuclear waste, we expect to continue to find a myriad of closely related complex structures of these types for the f-elements.

38 RADIATION CHEMISTRY, RADIOCHEMISTRY, AND NUCLEA↗
NASA NTRS2015

Survival of Organic Materials in Ancient Cryovolcanically-Produced Halite Crystals

Spectroscopic evidence supports the presence of Mg-Na-K salts derived from cryovolcanism on the surface of Europa. Halite (NaCl) is effective at very long-term preservation of organic phases and structures. Collection of salt crystals from Europan plumes would provide solid inclusions of organics, potentially also biomaterials, all suitable for analysis. Two thermally-metamorphosed ordinary chondrite regolith breccias (Monahans 1998 (H5) and Zag (H3-6)) contain fluid and solid inclusion-bearing halite crystals, dated to approximately 4.5 billion years, and thus the trapped aqueous fluids and solids are at least as old. Heating/freezing studies of the aqueous fluid inclusions in these halites demonstrated that they were trapped near 25 degrees Centigrade, and their continued presence in the halite grains requires that their incorporation into the H chondrite asteroid occurred after that body's metamorphism ended, since heating would have dessicated the halite. O and H isotopes of the trapped fluids are consistent with mixing of asteroidal and cometary water. Cryovolcanic Origin of the Halite: We hypothesize that these meteoritic halites derive from ancient cryovolcanism based on the following points. (1) Salts crystals are observed as products of current cryovolcanism on Enceladus. (2) In-situ spacecraft analysis of some of the icy grains associated with the Enceladus salt found minor organic or siliceous components, including methane, also found in the Monahans halite. (3) Cryovolcanic fluids are observed to be in chemical disequilibrium, reflecting incomplete reactions between interior volatiles and rocky materials. The coexistence of N2 and HCN in Enceladus' cryovolcanic fluids requires that the plume consists of a mixture of materials whose sources experienced different degrees of aqueous processing, including primordial material trapped in ice that has not been in contact with liquid water. The observed mineral assemblage within the Monahans and Zag halites is also far from equilibrium. Cryovolcanoes on Ceres are a potential source of our halite, however the processes that form halite should also be operating within Europa. Dissolution of Monahans halite grains has revealed a remarkable variety of organics, which dominate the population of solid inclusions. Thermal alteration of this macromolecular carbon (measured by Raman spectroscopy) shows remarkable diversity. We have identified highly-condensed aromatics, diamond, carbonates and chloromethane. Light organic compounds like methane tend to be water soluble and require cold formation temperatures at high hydrogen fugacity - i.e. require water ice. Another indication that these halites have not been heated is that light organics readily volatilize or aromaticize into PAHs. We are currently analyzing the organics by Raman and C-XANES, and measuring the content and exploring the potential chirality of amino acids in the halite. Implications for Europa Plumes: Organic materials and structures erupted by a Europa cryovolcano should be similarly preserved within halite, and other salts, which will be a convenient form for capture and analysis, since halite will serve to encapsulate and protect the organics from spacecraft contamination. Also, being transparent at many wavelengths halite will permit analysis by spacecraft-mounted spectroscopic techniques. In addition, halite is readily dissolved, permitting further analysis of entrained organics.

Zolensky, M.↗
DOE OSTI2024

Variation in Cation Adsorption Mechanism Controlled by Chemical and Structural Heterogeneities at the Quartz (101)–Water Interface

Mineral–water interfacial reactions are central to chemical processes that control the fate of nutrients and contaminants in natural environments. Mineral surfaces commonly have complex structures and compositions whose impact on interfacial reactivity is poorly understood. Here, in this work, we investigated the effects of surface heterogeneities on Rb + sorption at the quartz (101)–10 mM RbCl solution interface at pH 9.8 using in situ high-resolution X-ray reflectivity. Two surface locales (i.e., Spots A and B) having distinct interfacial structures were chosen: Spot A was characterized by its low defect density (≤20% topmost Si vacancies) and Rb + adsorption occurred predominantly as an inner-sphere complex. In comparison, Spot B had a higher defect density (~50% vacancies) and was covered with poorly crystalline SiO 2 . A substantially larger Rb + uptake (i.e., 7-times higher coverage) was observed on this defective surface where Rb + incorporated in the vacancy sites (confirmed by density functional tight binding-based molecular dynamics simulations) or adsorbed directly on the disordered film. These results provide a direct quantification of how surface heterogeneity influences the geochemical behavior of mineral–water interfaces, in particular highlighting the important role of chemical and structural defects on the sorbate speciation and coverage at silicate mineral surfaces.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗
DOE OSTI2025

Determining Drying Conditions to Mitigate Hanford Transfer Line Corrosion

Radioactive waste is stored in underground, carbon-steel double-shell tanks at the Department of Energy Hanford site.1,2,3 The underground transfer lines are used to transfer the waste between the tanks and other assets at the Hanford tank farm facilities. The transfer lines constructed before 1990 are pipe-in-pipe design with most of the lines having carbon steel carrier pipe and carbon steel encasements. The lines constructed after 1990 have a stainless-steel carrier with a carbon steel encasement. The carrier lines, which are in contact with the waste, provide a critical confinement function, while the encasements provide secondary containment to reduce the risk of a release and contamination to the environment. In 2022, a visual inspection of the annulus between the encasement and the carrier for one of the pre-1990 transfer lines revealed standing liquid in contact with the carrier pipe. Additionally, a significant build-up of corrosion products on the exterior of the carrier pipe and the interior of the encasement pipe was observed. To assess the extent of condition, borescope inspections were performed in the encasement space of additional transfer lines in the facility to provide a baseline. The inspection revealed that of the lines inspected, 29 had either moisture present or evidence that moisture had been present in the past (e.g., waterline corrosion where the pipe had been exposed to standing water). Additional inspections indicated several instances of pitting corrosion on the interior of the encasement and exterior the carrier transfer lines. An image of the carrier pipe with several pits is presented in Figure 1(a) and the profiled image of the transfer line section along with the pit depths are presented Figure 1(b). As seen in the figure, the deepest pit was 73 mils on the pipe section. These lines were designated as “do-not-use” until further compensatory actions are implemented to return the lines to service.

Shukla, Pavan K. [Savannah River National Laborato↗
DOE OSTI2021

Development of High-efficiency and Cost-effective Forged Ingot Niobium Technology for Science Frontiers and Accelerator Applications

Development of Forged Ingot Niobium Technology: Worlds science frontier programs and SRF accelerator applications demand high performance and cost-effective SRF accelerator technology [1-8]. Fine-grain (FG) and Large-grain (LG) ingot niobium technologies have been very well developed and implemented in all the present-day accelerator projects. However, forged ingot niobium technology which is the focus of this development proposal will be much more cost-effective and expected to have several technical advantages. FG niobium sheet production is very complex involving more than ten processing steps making them prone to contamination. As a result, they are very expensive to produce and require stringent QA procedure to be ready for SRF cavity production. The accelerating cavity process steps are also numerous and require strict procedures in order to achieve high accelerating gradients and quality factors needed for science frontier programs. LG niobium disc production, directly sliced from the ingot, is relatively simple and straight forward to keep surface cleanness. The disc production cost is significantly low compared to FG niobium sheet production. However, there are (some) draw backs due to non-homogeneity of the grain boundary distribution, resulting in non-uniform mechanical properties and complex cavity fabrication, although the LG cavities achieve the expected high-gradient performance goals with lower cost. Medium-grain (MG) niobium disk production may be realized with a new approach/process, the disc directly sliced from the forged ingot, involves a simpler process steps contributing major production cost reduction [9]. These discs are expected to be superior as they tend to be homogenous with uniform sub millimeter grains and mechanical properties. We are eagerly looking forward to developing the forged ingot niobium SRF accelerator technology for the benefit of the world-wide science frontier programs, green energy subcritical nuclear energy systems and a wide variety of industrial applications including the production of radio isotopes and nuclear transmutation applications. Measurement of thermal characteristics of the forged ingot niobium: Measurement of the thermal diffusivity, D, of superconducting MG niobium is important to be understood in comparison with FG sheet and LG disc, as well as that of advanced composite material of Nb3Sn film sputtered on forged ingot Nb, which will be determined using transient pump-probe thermo-modulation [10,11]. Transient thermo-modulation is based on using an ultrafast laser pulse to heat the superconducting materials by a few K, then a synchronized laser pulse probes the reflectance of the heated material. For thin films on a substrate (e.g, 100-nm Nb3Sn on Nb), it takes <100 ps for the heat to reach the substrate by diffusion. Therefore, an ultrafast method is needed to probe D of the studied material. D will be measured from room temperature to liquid helium temperatures. Fundamental Research: The increase of rf loss in SRF cavities is related to trapping of residual magnetic field during the cavity cool-down. The study suggested that the micro structure plays the role in flux trapping sensitivity. The research includes the flux trapping and expulsion study as forged ingot niobium goes through several mechanical deformations, crystallization leading to the optimal SRF cavity performance. Furthermore, the cavity made from FG, MG, and LG sheet/disc will be compared to understand the optimal re-crystallization temperature that cavity needed to be heat treated which minimize the flux trapping and increase SRF cavity performance. References: 1. S. Belomestnykh, Overview of recent SRF developments for ERLs, presented at the SRF 2015, Whistler, BC, Canada (2015). 2. A. Yamamoto, M. Yamanaka and G. Myneni, Ingot Nb based SRF Technology for the International Linear Collider, in Science and Technology of Ingot Niobium for Superconducting Radio Frequency Applications, AIP Conf. Proc. 1687, 030005-1 ? 03005-6, 2015 3. Report of the Workshop on Energy and Environmental Applications of Accelerators, DOE Workshop Report. https://science.osti.gov/-/media/hep/pdf/Reports/2020/CASM_WorkshopReport.pdf? la=en&hash=AEB0B318ED0436B1C5FF4EE0FDD6DEB84C2F15B2 4. G. Ciovati, et al., Design of a cw, low-energy, high-power superconducting linac for environmental applications, Phys. Rev. Accel. Beams 21, 091601 (2018). 5. P. Dhakal, et al., Effect of high temperature heat treatments on the quality factor of a large-grain superconducting radio-frequency niobium cavity, Phys. Rev. ST Accel. Beams 16, 042001 (2013). 6. P. Kneisel et al., Review of ingot niobium as a material for superconducting radio frequency accelerating cavities, Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research A 774, 133 (2015). 7. G. Ciovati, P. Dhakal, and G. R, Myneni, Superconducting radio-frequency cavities made from medium and low-purity niobium ingots, Supercond. Sci. Technol. 29, 064002 (2016). 8. M. Drury et al., commissioning of the prototype C75 cavities in a CEBAF cryomodule, in Proc. of IPAC 2018, Vancouver, BC, Canada (2018) 9. Feasibility of forged-ingot niobium disc and SRF cavity fabrication technology recently demonstrated in cooperation of ATI, BSCE, and KEK (2020). 10. Hani E. Elsayed-Ali, ?Measurements of heat transport in thin films by ultrafast laser-based techniques,? 3rd International Conference on Thermal Issues in Emerging Technologies Theory and Applications, Cairo, Egypt, pp. 347 ? 350 (2010). DOI: 10.1109/ThETA17616.2010 11. W. M. G. Ibrahim, H. E. Elsayed-Ali, M. Schinn, and C. A. Bonner, Jr., ?Ultrafast investigation of electron dynamics in multilayer metals,? Int. J. Heat and Mass Transfer, 47(10?11), 2261?2268 (2004).

Myneni, G.↗
NASA NTRSDate not supplied

GC/MS Method Development for Separating Lunar Volatile Ice Simulant Headspace Gases

Various investigators propose the lunar surface contains widely distributed volatiles, especially water- like species, i.e. OH and H2O. Surface volatiles are theorized to exist as a hydrated regolith layer, concentrated in extremely cold polar permanently shadowed regions (PSR), and/or solar wind implantation reservoirs in lunar glasses. The proposed sources of lunar surface volatiles range from cometary impacts, solar wind, or a supply present during moon formation. Future Artemis missions aim to collect and return the samples containing volatiles collected near lunar polar craters or PSRs. We, as advanced curation scientists, are responsible for developing techniques and methodologies for preserving returned sample integrity as much as possible. Pristine volatile-bearing samples are invaluable to the scientific community seeking to unravel the history of the solar system. Realistically, a sample will experience alteration during collection, transportation back to earth, and storage. The Planetary Exploration and Astromaterials Research Lab (PEARL) seeks to understand temperature and pressure effects on high-fidelity volatile-containing regolith simulants, the foundation for the future of cold curation. This abstract outlines the separation, identification, and quantification of headspace gases over volatile ice feed stock material using gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC/MS). Preliminary objectives concentrated on sample handling, reproducibility, and understanding the elution characteristics for each analyte. Initial GC/MS method development experiments utilized diluted static headspace sample preparation. Diluted samples were used because sampling headspace gases directly from a vial containing liquid analyte resulted in overloading of the column and detector. Overloading is evident based on chromatogram peak shapes and instrument contamination, or carry over, between experiments. A mixture of three alcohols were used for a majority of the sample handling and reproducibility studies. Reproducibility was tested via multiple users, calibration curves, and check standards. Stock solutions of condensed lunar volatile analytes included methanol, ammonia in methanol, hydrogen sulfide in water, and an equal volume mixture of methanol, ethanol, and isopropanol. Current samples use room air as the headspace sample matrix, however future experiments will incorporate an inert purge gas, such as argon or nitrogen. Three mL of each analyte solution were capped in separate 20 mL crimp top GC vials. Dilutions were carried out by removing an aliquot of headspace gases with a calibrated 1 mL gastight syringe and immediately transferring to a 20 mL capped crimp top vial. The GC/MS is a Thermo Fisher Trace 1310/ISQ 7000 with a TriPlus RSH autosampler and split/splitless injector module. The experiments outlined in this abstract use the following hardware: a 2.5 mL gastight headspace syringe tool, 1 mm ID x 78.5 mm length ultra-inert straight injection liner, and a TG-BondQ 30 m × 0.32 mm × 10 μm column. Various parameters, such as hardware selection and the temperature, pressure, and split ratio set points, continue to evolve as the overall experiment is refined. Diluted headspace chromatograms were collected for the individual stock solutions. Retention times, peak shapes, and mass spectra were evaluated and added to the data processing method for each molecule of interest. Figure 1 shows the total ion chromatograms for the three major lunar volatile simulant stock solutions: methanol, 7 N ammonia in methanol, and 0.4% hydrogen sulfide in water. Tailing peak shapes for ammonia (2.98 min rt) and water (4.06 min rt) indicate the molecules are not properly eluting from the selected column with the current separation method. Additionally, hydrogen sulfide and ammonia have overlapping peak windows, which could impact quantification. Ongoing experiments aim to address the peak shape and overlapping via the separation method and hardware selection. Sample preparation reproducibility experiments used stock solution containing equal volumes of a non- interactive mixture of methanol, ethanol, and isopropanol. Mass spectrum ion traces were used to identify and quantify all three alcohols. Peaks were automatically detected, identified, and integrated through the mass spectra detection and processing parameters. Calibration response curves and check standards were used to evaluate the validity of the sample preparation procedure. Figure 2 shows the methanol chromatogram peak area versus total headspace dilution volume transferred from the alcohol mixture vial. The calibration response curves and check standards validate sample preparation procedure. Continuing data analysis efforts are working towards correlating the peak area and instrument response factor to the headspace analyte concentration and condensed phase composition. Static headspace gas chromatography theory relies on Dalton’s law, Raoult’s law, Henry’s Law, and the Kolb and Ettre equation to associate peak area to the analyte composition in a non-ideal solution. Equation 1 is a simplified expression derived from the aforementioned theories. Future experiments involve liquid injections of the individual stock solutions, liquid and headspace analysis of various stock solution combinations, and the addition of regolith simulants to the mixtures. Temperature is another variable expected to affect reaction rates and will be explored.

Cecilia L. Amick↗