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Search indexed NASA NTRS and DOE OSTI research on propulsion, heat transfer, battery materials and energy systems. Follow report and document links to the original sources.

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At least 397 records · Page 22
All sourcesNASA NTRSDOE OSTI
DOE OSTI2026

Innovating High Throughput Hydrogen Stations: Cooperative Research and Development Final Report, CRADA Number CRD-18-00773

Hydrogen stations today serve the emerging market of light duty fuel cell vehicles, primarily in California with over 30 public retail locations. There has been a steady increase in the number of stations open and hydrogen dispensed, especially in the last two years. From 2015 to 2016, the annual amount of hydrogen dispensed increased from 27,400 kg to 109,200 kg, a nearly fourfold increase in just one year. One station dispensed nearly 12,000 kg in the second quarter of 2017. Despite the significant progress, gaps exist between current infrastructure capabilities and future requirements. For example, fuel cell vehicle applications such as buses, medium-duty, and heavy-duty trucks will gain market share and this must be considered as future customers at hydrogen stations. The expected number of light duty fuel cell vehicles in California alone are expected to grow from approximately 4,000 to over 13,000 by 2020, and 37,000 by 2023. To serve the multiple mobile fuel cell technologies and increased demand, hydrogen stations will have to increase output, decrease cost, and improve reliability. To address these challenges, the project team will demonstrate a hydrogen-focused integrated renewable energy production, storage, and transportation fuel distribution/retailing system. The proposed R&D tasks address key challenges related to light duty station/component reliability and development and validation of high flow rate system models for new applications like medium and heavy-duty truck fueling.

08 HYDROGEN↗
DOE OSTI2020

Thermal Analysis Evaluations Using the Dry Cask Simulator

Different thermal analysis models were developed to simulate the dry cask simulator (DCS). The DCS is an experiment designed to simulate dry storage of a single boiling water reactor fuel assembly under a variety of heat loads and internal pressures. The DCS was set up and tested in both a vertical and horizontal configuration to determine cladding temperatures in vertical and horizontal dry cask storage systems. The models included a detailed STAR-CCM+ model with the fuel assembly geometry explicitly modeled, a porous STAR-CCM+ model with the fuel assembly geometry modeled as porous media region with calculated effective properties, and a COBRA-SFS model. COBRA-SFS is a thermal-hydraulic code developed for steady-state and transient analysis of multi assembly spent-fuel storage and transportation systems. STAR-CCM+ is a commercial computation fluid dynamics (CFD) code. Both a detailed and porous STARCCM+ model were developed to look at the effective thermal conductivity (keff) approach to modeling a fuel assembly. A keff fuel model is typically model in CFD thermal analyses due to its significantly lower computational costs. The models were run for a combination of low and high canister pressures (100 kPa and 800 kPa) and low and high internal heat loads (0.5 kW and 5 kW). Results from all three models were compared against experimental data taken from the DCS for the peak cladding temperature (PCT) and inlet air mass flow.

Suffield, Sarah R.↗
DOE OSTI2022

EERC Final Topical Report – Findings on Subtask 3.2 – Produced Water Management Through Geologic Homogenization, Conditions, and Reuse

The Energy & Environmental Research Center (EERC) was awarded a contract by the North Dakota Industrial Commission (NDIC) Oil and Gas Research Program (NDIC No. G-051-101) to conduct a study on the recycling of water used in oil and gas operations, also known as produced water, from oil- and gas-producing regions of North Dakota as directed by Section 19 of North Dakota House Bill 1014. This final report provides a compilation of results of the study, which include regulatory, scientific, technological, and feasibility methods and considerations associated with North Dakota produced water management. The report provides a synopsis of this project’s previously submitted produced water assessment report entitled “Produced Water Management and Recycling Options in North Dakota” (Energy & Environmental Research Center, 2020), with updated values provided as appropriate. The report provides the results from the investigation of a novel produced water management strategy, referred to as geologic homogenization, conditioning, and reuse (GHCR), which aims to use a subsurface geologic formation as a natural medium for managing produced water recycling and reuse. Water management is a significant technical and economic challenge for sustainable oil and gas production, and water volumes are intrinsically linked to oil production volumes. North Dakota oil production rose to over 1.5 million barrels (MMbbl)/day in 2019, and despite a downturn in oil price in early 2020, North Dakota oil production has recovered to 1.1 MMbbl/day as of August 2021. Bakken petroleum system development between 2008 and 2020 has resulted in a nearly fourfold increase in produced water volumes to 642 MMbbl/yr in 2020 after peaking at 740 MMbbl/yr in 2019 and a fivefold increase in saltwater disposal (SWD) volumes to 565 MMbbl/yr in 2020 after a peak of 682 MMbbl/yr in 2019. Produced water and SWD volumes are forecasted to double by 2030. SWD is the primary method of produced water management used in North Dakota, with approximately 95% of the SWD volume occurring through subsurface injection into sandstones of the Dakota Group (Dakota). Localized pressurization of the Dakota resulting from SWD and projected increases in produced water volumes could impact the economics of North Dakota oil production. As a result, there is an emerging need to pursue alternative produced water management approaches, including recycling and reuse. While produced water recycling is not yet widespread, commercial operators are making strides in overcoming the technical challenges of using high salinity produced water in completion operations (Marathon Oil, 2020). As water management continues to be a key focal point in companies’ environmental, social, and governance (ESG) initiatives, focus on water management, including recycling, will likely continue to increase. Laboratory column testing, field sample collection, geologic modeling and numerical simulation, and techno-economic analysis all indicate that GHCR could feasibly be implemented as a potential water management option. Laboratory column testing and field sample collection indicate that the Inyan Kara sandstone and native formation fluid are capable of homogenizing with the Bakken produced water to a point where the fluid composition appears to stabilize. Extracting that stabilized fluid could be considered homogeneous and capable of providing individual batches of hydraulic fracturing fluid. Numerical simulation results indicate that extraction of fluids from the Inyan Kara in a GHCR implementation scenario is capable of reducing formation pressure, which would help ease localized pressurization of the Inyan Kara and extend the available capacity for nearby existing SWD wells. Economic analysis indicates that there are scenarios where GHCR implementation can be a competitive or even lower-cost option than a conventional water management approach. Site-specific conditions will dictate the economic potential of GHCR, but potentially attractive sites for GHCR implementation will be those that are located above a pressurized zone of the Inyan Kara, need six or more Bakken infill wells, and face high costs for conventional SWD and/or freshwater. Based on the regulatory review, drilling into the Inyan Kara for SWD and to harness as a source water for industrial use have precedent in North Dakota, and a workable regulatory solution for GHCR seems likely. However, restrictions in the state regarding surface storage and transport of produced fluids may limit some activities, which will affect how GHCR could ultimately be implemented. In summary, this study reveals pursuing GHCR can be a viable approach to water management in North Dakota. The GHCR concept addresses some of the challenges that hinder the more traditional approaches to recycling in the industry. Furthermore, an assessment of the current landscape of water management within the state reveals the ongoing trend of increasing volumes of produced water and SWD. Projections reveal that the volumes of produced water that need to be managed are expected to double over the next decade (Energy & Environmental Research Center, 2020). With the continued development of the Bakken and continuing driving factors related to ESG initiatives, implementing a practice such as GHCR is a feasible approach to adding recycling of produced water to industry within the state. This subtask was cofunded through the EERC–U.S. Department of Energy Joint Program on Research and Development for Fossil Energy-Related Resources Cooperative Agreement No. DE-FE0024233. Nonfederal funding was provided by the North Dakota Industrial Commission Oil and Gas Research Program. References Energy & Environmental Research Center, 2020, Produced water management and recycling options in North Dakota: Final Report for North Dakota Legislative Management Energy Development and Transmission Committee and North Dakota Industrial Commission. Marathon Oil, 2020, Sustainability report: https://cdn.sanity.io/files/ghcnw9z2/website/ 91744eb6ef8fbe59505a911c6b8d2e8dd9a537fa.pdf?dl (accessed November 2021).

02 PETROLEUM↗
DOE OSTI2023

Direct observation of 3D topological spin textures and their interactions using soft x-ray vector ptychography

Magnetic topological defects are energetically stable spin configurations characterized by symmetry breaking. Vortices and skyrmions are two well-known examples of 2D spin textures that have been actively studied for both fundamental interest and practical applications. However, experimental evidence of the 3D spin textures has been largely indirect or qualitative to date, due to the difficulty of quantitively characterizing them within nanoscale volumes. Here, we develop soft x-ray vector ptychography to quantitatively image the 3D magnetization vector field in a frustrated superlattice with 10 nm spatial resolution. By applying homotopy theory to the experimental data, we quantify the topological charge of hedgehogs and anti-hedgehogs as emergent magnetic monopoles and probe their interactions inside the frustrated superlattice. We also directly observe virtual hedgehogs and anti-hedgehogs created by magnetically inert voids. We expect that this new quantitative imaging method will open the door to study 3D topological spin textures in a broad class of magnetic materials. Our work also demonstrates that magnetically frustrated superlattices could be used as a new platform to investigate hedgehog interactions and dynamics and to exploit optimized geometries for information storage and transport applications.

Rana, A↗
DOE OSTI2023

Computational modeling and validation of a modified Marple cascade impactor

Oak Ridge National Laboratory (ORNL) is investigating respirable aerosol fractions from failed high-burnup (HBU) commercial spent nuclear fuel (CSNF) rods (Montgomery et al., 2022). The work aims to characterize the source term of radioactive aerosols that could result from mechanical failure and handling of failed fuel rods during storage and/or transportation. The experiment involves capturing and characterizing aerosols from a four-point bending experiment of fueled rod segments at ORNL’s Irradiated Fuels Examination Laboratory (IFEL). For this, a Marple cascade impactor (Series 290) with the ability to collect particles up to aerodynamic equivalent diameters of ~15 μm was tested for feasibility. The commercially available Marple cascade impactor design was modified for the experiment, where the cascade inlet was replaced with a 3D printed inlet nozzle. Collection efficiency curves were then generated with the modified impactor, and the cascade’s performance was tested using ISO dust capture experiments followed by SEM analysis of the collection and computational modeling. The current work highlights the performance testing and experimental validation of this modified Marple Impactor for spent nuclear fuel aerosol collection.

Kumar, Vineet↗
DOE OSTI2023

Plan for a Data Base Approach to Evaluating LWR Plant Integration with Hydrogen and Industrial Facilities

The purpose of this report is to provide an outline and scope of a database tool that could be used to identify the most beneficial locations to site a hydrogen, chemical facility or other industrial facility that would be powered by nuclear energy. This energy may be in the form of electricity produced by the plant, heat in the form of steam or both. In addition, this siting tool should consider factors such as economics, geography, industries, residences, geological hydrogen storage, and key infrastructure. The infrastructure to be considered could include pipelines or other storage and transportation facilities to carry the created products from the production facility to the end user. Also considered should be infrastructure that could deliver needed chemicals or gasses to allow the production of desired products such as ammonia or biofuels. This data base tool should allow a screening study of all U.S. nuclear plants to identify opportunities and barriers to creating hydrogen hubs around nuclear power plants. For this effort, it has been decided that the Siting Tool for Advanced Nuclear Development (STAND) would be used to conduct this screening study which is a follow-on research project to this present effort. Currently, plans are being developed to modify the STAND tool to provide the capability necessary to perform screening of each US commercial nuclear plant to identify the best locations to site hydrogen or chemical production facilities. Many features of the current STAND tool will be employed to meet this objective, but additional infrastructure data (such as the location of pipelines) may need to be added to allow these locations to be fully vetted. In addition, new analysis capabilities may need to be added so economic considerations can be understood

11 NUCLEAR FUEL CYCLE AND FUEL MATERIALS↗
DOE OSTI2020

Study of Waste Generated by Retrieval of Fuel Debris at Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Station - 20178

As a member of International Research Institute for Nuclear Decommissioning (IRID), we organized information on waste generated from the fuel debris retrieval, and considered containment, transport and storage processes. An important safety function to consider for these wastes is not only the handling of ordinary high-dose waste, but also the prevention of diffusion of fuel component contamination and the countermeasures against hydrogen gas generation. In order to satisfy these safety functions, we considered guideline for waste generated from the fuel debris retrieval, and proposed an example of handling process that includes generation of waste, container storage, on-site transfer and storage in a storage building. (authors)

12 MANAGEMENT OF RADIOACTIVE AND NON-RADIOACTIVE W↗
DOE OSTI2024

WIP: Collaborating to Introduce Second-Life Battery Technology Research in an Informal STEM Learning Environment

This work in progress, innovative practice, paper outlines an interdisciplinary collaborative model utilized by a team of educational researchers, and engineers to design a series of community-centered, place-based learning activities suitable for a middle or high school informal STEM learning environment. Based on the potential applications and benefits of Second-Life Electric Vehicle Batteries, the activities connect cutting-edge STEM research with multidimensional real-world challenges within their communities related to climate change, renewable energy integration and storage, intelligent transportation systems, and optimized energy management, that empowers students to think critically about the role they can play in shaping a more resilient, environmentally sustainable community.

Whiteside, Hope↗
DOE OSTI2025

Combined TDLAS and chemiluminescence imaging in a flat flame burner operated with NH3/H2 blends

Ammonia is a promising hydrogen carrier due to its favorable storage and transport characteristics. However, its direct use in combustion systems is limited by low flammability and potential for high nitrogen oxide emissions. To better understand ammonia combustion, researchers conducted experiments using a flat flame burner and measured species profiles using tunable-diode-laser-absorption-spectroscopy and chemiluminescence imaging. They tested three flame conditions with different ammonia-hydrogen blends and oxygen levels. The results were compared to simulations using various kinetic mechanisms, including one that accounts for excited species chemistry. The goal is to provide direct information about species profiles in a simple system, isolating chemical kinetics from fluid dynamic effects, which can inform the development of more efficient and low-emission combustion systems using ammonia.

ammonia combustion↗
DOE OSTI2025

Considerations for Thermal Annealing of Zr-Alloy Cladding During Dry Storage

In January 2025, the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) sponsored a technical workshop with fuel vendors that provided a forum for increased collaboration on backend fuel cycle research. The workshop reviewed observations of thermal annealing of irradiated zirconium alloys in simulated dry storage conditions and discussed implications to the industry’s interest in reducing wet storage to optimize operational flexibility and the expected trend of increasing discharge burnup (and decay heats), which could lead to an increase in dry storage temperatures. One approach to accommodate increased decay heats in dry storage is to increase the regulatory temperature limit during dry storage, which is now 400°C. However, this could lead to thermal annealing of the cladding, which will tend to increase creep rates, creep strains, and ductility while decreasing yield strength. These considerations are compounded by bonding between the pellet and cladding at high burnup, which results in the pellet carrying more load during fuel rod deformations, especially in bending, which is the dominant deformation phenomenon in canister drop analyses. Because the U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) recommends yield strength as a primary failure criterion for accident analyses in storage and transportation, particularly for canister drop scenarios, the purpose of the workshop was to develop options for alternative failure criterion that could replace yield strength in canister drop analyses. Topics discussed were (1) the regulatory framework, (2) the effect of thermal annealing on microhardness and tensile properties of cladding materials, (3) the effect of thermal annealing on fuel rod failure during bending, bending fatigue, and pinch loading, and (4) an alternative failure criterion for canister drop analyses. This paper provides a summary of the key discussions and outcomes of the workshop

Cantonwine, Paul [ORNL] (ORCID:0009000522247033)↗
DOE OSTI2025

A New NCSP Nuclear Criticality Safety Training and Pipeline Program

Nuclear criticality safety (NCS) training is vital and mandatory for NCS professionals to ensure the safe processing, handling, storage, and transportation of fissionable materials outside nuclear reactors. The requirement for this training is prescribed in several international and domestic guidance documents.

(NCS) Training↗
DOE OSTI2025

Optimization of a Secondary Air Injector for a Rich-Quench-Lean (RQL) Ammonia Combustor Using Computational Fluid Dynamics

Ammonia has emerged as a promising medium for moving hydrogen around the globe due to its energy density, existing infrastructure for production, transportation, and storage, and multiple applications from fertilizer to power generation. However, one of the most significant challenges with ammonia combustion for power generation is the formation of nitrogen oxides (NOx) during combustion. Several combustion strategies have been developed to minimize the formation of NOx. One such strategy, known as rich-quench-lean (RQL), is a method that combusts NH3 in a fuel-rich environment, followed by a quick mix section and a lean burnout section. Rapid mixing of secondary air before lean burnout is thought to be important to minimize the formation of NOx. A genetic algorithm (GA) is used to parametrically vary the secondary air injector design, including the diameter, count, and angles over a constrained design space. The designs are evaluated using a non-reacting OpenFOAM model, with the objective function being the uniformity index of the secondary air (modeled as a scalar). Optimization campaigns show that traditional correlation-based designs might not be adequate. After running 414 OpenFOAM models, the optimal design is 32, 1 mm diameter, angled air injectors, increasing the uniformity index at the outlet of the quick mix zone by 36.8%. The most promising designs will be manufactured and tested in a small RQL burner setup, which is expected to lead to validation and insight into the practical usage of NH3 combustion for power generation.

ammonia combustion↗
DOE OSTI2024

Drop Analysis of Department of Energy Standard Canister with Fort Saint Vrain SNF

DOE manages over 300 types of SNF, most of which are located at the INL site. The Idaho Cleanup Project and INL are collaborating on the Road-Ready Capability Demonstration Project, which will develop and demonstrate the designs, technology, processes, and regulatory framework for packaging DOE-managed SNF at the INL site for ?road-ready dry storage?. ?Road-ready dry storage? is a SNF management concept where SNF is packaged into dry and sealed canisters, which are then placed in on-site storage in anticipation of later transportation. The forward-looking goal of the Demonstration is establishing the foundation for a large-scale road-ready dry storage program at the INL site. The Demonstration will first package Fort Saint Vrain SNF currently stored at INL into several DOE Standard Canisters. These Standard Canisters will then be loaded into another commercial transportation or storage containment system (e.g., storage cask or transportation package). The Standard Canister is a class of standardized canisters designed for containing the large variety of DOE-managed SNF during interim storage, transportation and/or disposal at a geological repository. One critical aspect of road-ready dry storage is the ability to license the DOE Standard Canisters and its associated transportation package to 10 CFR 71. Depending on the SNF and transportation strategy, the Standard Canisters may have to maintain structural integrity under normal conditions of transport and hypothetical accident scenarios (i.e., drop events). The Standard Canisters have been tested and analyzed under various SNF loading configurations and accident drop events in support of the Idaho Spent Fuel Facility and other DOE programs. However, no analysis has been completed to support the recent Demonstration. This analysis will consider the Ø0.5 m × 5.1 m Standard Canister under drop scenario(s) considered in previous INL tests and analyses, including the 9 m drop at 80 degree off vertical. However, this analysis will consider the more recent Fort Saint Vrain loading configurations proposed for the Demonstration. This analysis will performed using strain-based acceptance criteria established by the American Society of Mechanical Engineers Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, Section III, Division 3. It will be compared to previous analyses and form the foundation of further formal calculations that will be used to support licensing efforts of the road-ready dry storage system at INL.

11 NUCLEAR FUEL CYCLE AND FUEL MATERIALS↗
DOE OSTI2020

New Designed Containers for Activated ILW from NPP Decommissioning - 20208

The paper focuses on packaging of dismantled and fragmented reactor components into containers and their transport to their storage and/or disposal facility within the immediate dismantling strategy applied on decommissioning of nuclear power plant (NPP) finally shutdown after standard operation. The main purpose of the paper is to present the process of design, manufacture, testing and use of new transport and storage containers for activated intermediate level waste (ILW) from V1 NPP decommissioning at Jaslovske Bohunice site. Legislation conditions, container selection process, requirements on their design and manufacture, scope of associated licensing documentation and technical procedures applied up to their use on site are described in detail. (authors)

12 MANAGEMENT OF RADIOACTIVE AND NON-RADIOACTIVE W↗
DOE OSTI2020

Validation of an Advanced High-Pressure PEM Electrolyzer and Composite Hydrogen Storage

One of the challenges associated with transitioning our nation’s transportation economy to any alternative fuel is bringing fuel production, storage, transportation, and end-customer delivery infrastructure online. There are challenges associated with planning and implementing hydrogen fueling stations at locations relevant to the parallel effort of bringing the related transportation vehicles into the market. There are additional challenges associated with the operation of hydrogen fueling stations and reducing operating costs through energy reduction. Through calculation and design efforts it was concluded that elevating the pressure of a PEM cell stack and further developing hydrogen processing equipment that support elevated pressures while maintaining similar characteristics to their current production counterparts will yield in energy savings and by extension cost reductions. In this report, the design of a 57-bar (827-psig) electrolysis system and electrolysis cell stack is described. Furthermore, the fabrication, component verification, and integrated testing are summarized. Prior to this development effort, Proton had demonstrated thousand of hours of durability on 30-bar (435-psig) differential pressure PEM electrolysis hardware. Proton has sold and installed many of these 30-bar devices at customer sites. Through this project, Proton has developed and tested 57-bar PEM electrolysis, thereby extending the proven capability of PEM electrolysis as a hydrogen generation and electrochemical compression device. A design and validation effort to arrange hydrogen processioning equipment for refueling OEM vehicles was also undertaken within this project. By arranging equipment within two 6-meter ISO shipping containers and further developing NFPA 2 Hydrogen Technologies Code to support containerized hydrogen equipment, efforts to site, install, and commission, and approve hydrogen fueling stations were reduced and now provide a groundwork for future installations.

08 HYDROGEN↗
DOE OSTI2023

Dissolution and reprecipitation of amorphous silica in silica Rich shales induces Non-Monotonic evolution of porosity in acidic reactive environments

Advances in sustainable subsurface energy technologies are crucial for meeting our energy and resource needs for a climate-resilient future. Novel strategies to harness subsurface shale reservoirs for recovering valuable metals and for enabling CO 2 storage are influenced by the morphological and mineralogical heterogeneities of these materials. In this context, delineating the interactions of highly acidic solutions such as wet supercritical CO 2 on shales with varying mineralogy is crucial to inform the stability of caprock seal for CO 2 storage and enhancements in permeability for fluid transport, reactivity, and storage. The feedback chemical effects associated with the interactions of acidic solutions on the morphologies and mineralogies of shales have not been extensively investigated. These insights are crucial for assessing temporal changes in the reactivity and the fate of the fluids in subsurface environments. In this study, we investigate the effect of 1M HCl solution on the chemistry and morphology of three different shale samples with varying carbonate, clay and silica contents. An increase in the amorphous content, from 37% to 41.3%, of silica-rich and carbonate/clay lean shale is noted due to reactions with an acidic solution which is attributed to the dissolution of Si-bearing phases such as clays, accompanied by SiO 2 precipitation. In shales bearing high content of clays and carbonates, significant increase in the pore volumes and surface areas are noted. Non-monotonic changes in the micron-scale porosity of silica rich–carbonate/clay lean (e.g., Mowry shale) are noted using in-situ X-ray microtomography experiments. Due to the initial mobilization of silica and dissolution of carbonate/clay phases, the total porosity slightly increases from 6.7% to 10.7% followed by a decrease to similar to 4% caused by SiO 2 reprecipitation. In conclusion, these findings suggest that even though silica is less reactive in acidic environments, the changes in the amorphous and crystalline content due to dissolution and reprecipitation alter the porosity and fluid flow paths.

04 OIL SHALES AND TAR SANDS↗
DOE OSTI2022

Ageing Management for Extended Long-Term Dry Storage of Spent Nuclear Fuel and Transportation

The principal objectives of the Coordinated Research Project (CRP) and CRADA were to (1) investigate how ageing effects leading to degradation of materials used in the spent fuel dry storage systems could be managed by ageing management programs (AMPs) and (2) using existing AMPs as a basis, establish guidance on how to develop, generate, and maintain AMPs for dry storage systems of spent nuclear fuel (SNF) that can be accomplished in various ways. The PI (Dr. Liu) is an internationally recognized expert on ageing management for license renewal of nuclear power plants and independent spent fuel dry storage installations. Dr. Liu was invited by IAEA to participate in this CRP and served as Chair of the Working Group, supporting the IAEA CRP Lead, with other members from Argentina, the Czech Republic, France, Germany, Hungary, Japan, Pakistan, Spain, Switzerland, United Kingdom, and the United States of America. Argonne’s scope of work in the CRADA for the CRP included (1) ageing management guidance documents developed by Argonne for DOE and used by the Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) and industry and (2) research leveraged from the DOE Office of Nuclear Energy on the mechanical properties of high-burnup fuel cladding and the ARG-US remote monitoring systems technology developed for the DOE Packaging Certification Program, Office of Packaging and Transportation, Office of Environmental Management.

11 NUCLEAR FUEL CYCLE AND FUEL MATERIALS↗