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Search indexed NASA NTRS and DOE OSTI research on propulsion, heat transfer, battery materials and energy systems. Follow report and document links to the original sources.

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At least 397 records · Page 22
All sourcesNASA NTRSDOE OSTI
DOE OSTI2026

Long cycle and calendar life of Si-based Li-ion batteries enabled by localized high-concentration electrolytes and their surprising water tolerance

Silicon-based anodes promise an increase in energy density for Li-ion batteries, yet they suffer from a poor calendar life. Researchers have posited that fluorinated lithium salt forms reactive side products that destroy the solid electrolyte interphase (SEI), even without cycling. HF is one such reactive side product formed from trace water contamination in the electrolyte. Some electrolytes, such as localized high concentration electrolytes (LHCEs) may improve cell stability in highly reactive systems, such as Li metal and Si. In the present study, LHCEs containing 200-300 ppm of water retained up to 8% greater capacity (1200-1300 mAh/g Si) in calendar life tests over 200 days compared to dried electrolytes (< 20 ppm water). Calendar aging took place at 100% state of charge. Cells with 200-300 ppm water performed comparably to cells with 20 ppm water in cycle life tests (900-1000 mAh/g Si) . Even adding 1000 ppm water did not lead to rapid capacity fade in cells undergoing cycle life tests. Nano-FTIR spectroscopy revealed chemical and structural differences in the SEI for cells with 1000 ppm water compared to 200-300 ppm water. The SEI differences, including increased Li2O concentration, may have contributed to improved calendar life. This research reveals the capabilities of LHCEs to improve the calendar and cycle life of Si-based Li-ion batteries, despite the presence of a highly reactive contaminant.

25 ENERGY STORAGE↗
DOE OSTI2022

Increasing the composition range of a novel τ 11 -Al 4 Fe 1.7 Si alloy with additions of Mn

Automotive applications need low-cost, lightweight, high-temperature alloys to increase vehicle efficiency. The Al–Fe–Si system provides an opportunity to develop such a material, as it consists of three low-cost elements that are all abundant in nature. Specifically, the τ 11 -Al 4 Fe 1.7 Si ternary intermetallic phase is a high-temperature, lightweight phase with high strength and good corrosion resistance. However, this phase exhibits a narrow compositional range of stability, resulting in undesirable microstructures forming during solidification and processing, limiting its use in potential applications. Density functional theory (DFT) calculations and a thermodynamically-driven experimental approach utilizing diffusion couples were employed to study the effect of Mn on the stability and composition range of τ 11 -Al 4 Fe 1.7 Si. The DFT calculations showed a decrease in the energy of the structure when alloying with Mn. Experimental results confirmed the predictions from the DFT calculations, indicating that alloying with Mn increases the compositional range, and thus the processability of this phase. New phase diagrams and equilibria are proposed by exploring and determining phase boundaries for the τ 11 -Al 4 Fe 1.7 Si phase with Mn.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2020

Aluminum-doped U 3 Si 2 composite fuels with enhanced oxidation resistance

Al-doped U 3 Si 2 composite fuels with controlled microstructure were fabricated by spark plasma sintering that display greatly-improved oxidation resistance as compared with monolithic and Al-doped silicides prepared by standard powder metallurgy or arc melting. The effects of Al additives on the thermal-mechanical properties and oxidation resisance of the micron- and nano-sized U 3 Si 2 composites were investigated. Additionally, a minimal addition of 1.8 at% Al is effective to increase the onset oxidation temperature of as-fabricated U 3 Si 2 pellets to 580 °C, which can be further increased to 610 °C by thermal annealing. The Al-doped U 3 Si 2 composite fuels also display simultaneously higher hardness and fracture toughness than un-doped U3Si2. These results highlight an effective strategy by integrating minimal Al additives, microstructure control and post-thermal annealing to design advanced silicide fuels with excellent oxidation resistance, desired thermal-mechanical properties and maintained high fissile element density.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2020

U 3 Si 2 and UO 2 composites densified by spark plasma sintering for accident-tolerant fuels

This work reports the synthesis and characterization of the U 3 Si 2 and UO 2 composites sintered by spark plasma sintering (SPS) with controlled microstructures for accident-tolerant fuel application. The U 3 Si 2 and UO 2 composites with different silicide and oxide ratios were synthesized by SPS at temperatures from 1000 to 1300 °C for 5 minutes. The microstructure and phase composition of the SPS densified composite fuels were characterized with scanning electron microscopy, X-ray diffraction (XRD), and energy dispersed spectroscopy (EDS). A systematic study of the thermal and mechanical properties was conducted using microhardness testing and laser flash apparatus, along with oxidation resistance measurements using thermogravimetric analysis (TGA). The results show that the synthesis of composite fuels can be achieved with a 90% theoretical density (TD) at 1000 °C and over 95% TD when sintered at 1300 °C. XRD and EDS results confirmed that the dominant phases in the composites are U 3 Si 2 and UO 2 . Improved physical density generally leads to improved hardness, fracture toughness, thermal diffusivity, and onset temperature during the oxidation process. U 3 Si 2 was found to play a dominant role in determining the mechanical and oxidation properties of the composite fuels, whereas UO 2 had a more important impact on controlling the thermal diffusivity of the composites. The composite with 50 wt% UO 2 sintered at 1300 °C displayed the onset oxidation temperature of 500 °C by dynamic oxidation testing using TGA at a ramp degree of 10 °C/min. The composite also achieved a high fracture toughness of ~3.5 MPa m ½ . Finally, these results highlight the potential of composite fuel forms densified by SPS with simultaneously enhanced fissile element density, fracture toughness, thermal transport properties, and oxidation resistance.

11 NUCLEAR FUEL CYCLE AND FUEL MATERIALS↗
DOE OSTI2020

Performance of U 3 Si 2 in an LWR following a cladding breach during normal operation

High-density fuels have been proposed as a possible replacement for uranium-dioxide as a fuel for light water reactors (LWRs) due to their increased loading of fissionable material. The objectives of this proposal are (1) to increase reactor cycle length and reactor power, and (2) to offset any neutronic penalty associated with advanced cladding systems. Of the high-density fuels under consideration, there is particular interest in triuranium disilicide (U 3 Si 2 ) due to its increased metal density and favorable thermal properties as compared to UO 2 . However, there are concerns regarding the chemical compatibility of U 3 Si 2 with water and steam as used for LWR coolant.This paper summarizes research on fuel-coolant chemical compatibility for UO 2 LWR fuel during a cladding breach and highlights that generally, because of its chemical inertness, UO 2 -coolant reactions are of little consequence to reactor operation. However, the volumetric expansion associated with the reaction of UO 2 and oxygen is a concern for possible conditions encountered during air ingress of dry storage. These same concerns arise for U 3 Si 2 , which exhibits greater volumetric expansion than UO 2 when exposed to water or steam. These reactions ultimately result in increased fuel volume that the cladding must accommodate, as well as additional heat generated as the fuel reacts.The BISON fuel performance code was used to perform a comparative analysis on the behavior of UO 2 and U 3 Si 2 under normal operation. Silicide fuel simulations were then extended to demonstrate how varying thermodynamic and chemical kinetics influence fuel expansion and subsequent cladding performance during a cladding breach. These simulations were further extended to a 3D subsection of a fuel rod to demonstrate the characteristics of the resulting cladding crack.

11 NUCLEAR FUEL CYCLE AND FUEL MATERIALS↗
DOE OSTI2026

Material-dependent photon ionizing radiation effects in Si and GaAs PIN diodes: A numerical investigation

We present a finite-element drift-diffusion-Poisson model in the Multiphysics Object-Oriented Simulation Environment (MOOSE) framework to compare the radiation response of silicon (Si) and gallium arsenide (GaAs) PIN diodes under high-energy photon irradiation. The model solves coupled carrier continuity and Poisson’s equations with Shockley-Read-Hall recombination, and is verified against standard analytical J-V behavior. Using a simplified 1D geometry with ideal Ohmic contacts, we quantify device response under forward and reverse bias with a 100 MeV photon flux. Under forward bias, Si exhibits markedly greater radiation sensitivity than GaAs, including larger increases in current density, stronger local field and carrier-product perturbations, and higher recombination. Under reverse bias, GaAs shows larger radiation-induced photocurrent and broader current-density peaks near junctions, indicating an advantage for photodetection. Integrated steady-state recombination is consistently higher in Si across voltages. Under periodic photon pulses, GaAs produces higher-amplitude photoresponse and settles more rapidly than Si. These results highlight material-dependent trade-offs for radiation-tolerant, high-speed optoelectronics and provide guidance for selecting PIN architectures in aerospace, nuclear, and high-energy physics environments.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2026

Thermal cycling-driven microstructural changes of eutectic Al–Si phase change materials in SS304 containers revealed by multi-modal imaging

Aluminum-based Al–Si alloys are widely used as phase change materials (PCMs) in thermal energy storage (TES) systems owing to their high volumetric latent heat and superior thermal conductivity. However, their long-term reliability is limited by degradation processes that remain insufficiently understood. In this work, we employ a multimodal, correlative characterization framework to systematically resolve the degradation behavior of eutectic Al–Si PCMs in contact with SS304 containers under repeated thermal cycling. By integrating high-resolution electron microscopy, three-dimensional X-ray fluorescence (3D XRF) imaging, and differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), we directly link spatially resolved compositional and microstructural evolution to changes in thermophysical properties. The correlative analysis reveals that elemental leaching of Fe, Cr, and Ni from the stainless-steel container into the PCM drives the formation of intermetallic compounds (IMCs) both at the interface and within the bulk PCM, leading to pronounced compositional heterogeneity. These interfacial reactions and diffusion-induced transformations progressively destabilize the Al–Si eutectic, reducing the effective phase-transforming fraction. Consistent with these observations, DSC measurements show a decrease in melting temperature and latent heat of fusion with thermal cycling. These results underscore the critical influence of interfacial reactions and material compatibility on the stability, durability, and overall performance of Al–Si-based TES systems.

25 ENERGY STORAGE↗
DOE OSTI2025

Age hardening response of Cu-30Ni alloys: The role of Si microalloying additions

Cu-30Ni alloys offer high strength and excellent corrosion resistance for maritime applications. While primarily a solid solution system, industrial alloys typically include microalloying additions of Fe, Mn, Nb and/or Si to enable age hardening. However, an understanding of the microstructural evolution during age hardening remains incomplete. Here, we conduct systematic ageing treatments and report the resulting hardness and microstructures. The Cu-30Ni alloy with Si aged at 650 °C for 6 h demonstrates significantly enhanced Vickers hardness, reaching ∼201 HV 1 compared to 103 HV 1 for the as-homogenised sample. Si-rich clusters and γ′ precipitates are identified, with their composition, size, and volume fraction quantified to determine their strengthening contributions. First-principles atomistic simulations elucidate the underlying formation mechanisms of these clusters and precipitates, highlighting the critical role of Si in driving their nucleation and growth. This study advances the design of high-strength, Cu alloys with the potential for corrosion resistance in demanding maritime environments.

Age hardening↗
DOE OSTI2021

Accelerated reliability tests of n + and p + poly-Si passivated contacts

We report on the stability of encapsulated, low-pressure chemical vapor-deposited phosphorus (n + poly-Si) doped and boron (p + poly-Si) doped poly-Si/SiO x passivated contacts by exposing the samples to three different accelerated tests: damp heat test, thermal cycling and ultraviolet exposure, adhering closely to the IEC 61215 standard. Outdoor testing was also performed by exposing the samples in the outdoor testing field at the National Renewable Energy Laboratory, and preliminary data accumulated for 1000 h from February to April of 2021 is reported. We studied non-metallized, thermally-metallized, and screen-printed n + and p + poly-Si by monitoring the effective minority carrier lifetime at the implied maximum power point using a Sinton lifetime tester, and recorded photoluminescence images before and after the exposure. Furthermore, the samples were found to be stable under all test conditions, which is encouraging for incorporation of these contacts in next-generation industrial silicon solar cells.

14 SOLAR ENERGY↗
DOE OSTI2023

Probing of the Noninnocent Role of P in Transition-Metal Phosphide Hydrogen Evolution Reaction Electrocatalysts via Replacement with Electropositive Si

Transition-metal phosphides (TMP) have been identified as promising electrocatalysts for the hydrogen evolution reaction (HER). Despite recent computational investigations identifying P sites as being crucial for hydrogen adsorption, the main mode of optimization for TMPs has been focused on changing the metal sites. Here, to experimentally verify computational hypotheses and provide a route for HER electrocatalyst optimization via ternary compounds, we performed systematic experimental studies of structurally related NiSi 1–x P x phases, namely, Ni 2 SiP, Ni 5 Si 2 P 3 , Ni 3 SiP 2 , and Ni 7 Si 2 P 5 , which are ordered derivatives of the NiSi structure (Pnma, oP-8, MnP structure type). We found that P played a significant role in modulating HER activity in an acidic electrolyte because the incorporation of P in NiSi reduced the overpotential at current density j = 10 mA/cm 2 from η 10 = 529 mV (NiSi) to η 10 = 97 mV (Ni 2 SiP). Ni 2 SiP outperformed the current state-of-the-art Ni5P4 electrocatalyst prepared and studied in identical conditions both in terms of activity and stability, which is attributed to the presence of covalent Ni–Si bonding in the structure. Within the family of ternary Ni–Si–P compounds, electrocatalytic activity correlates with the number of Ni-3d states at the Fermi energy.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗
DOE OSTI2026

Si–Cl Bond Activations at Ni(0) to Give Bimetallic Ni(I) μ 1,2 -Cl–SiR 1 R 2 Complexes that Undergo Selective Hydrogenolyses to R 1 R 2 SiH 2 Dihydrosilanes

Chlorosilanes are cheap and abundant raw materials as crucial building blocks in silicon chemistry, yet the metal-mediated activation and functionalization of Si–Cl bonds typically require precious metal sources due to their thermodynamic inertness. Herein, we report the stoichiometric, facile activation, and hydrogenolysis of chlorosilanes mediated by a series of low-valent NHC–Ni (NHC = N-heterocyclic carbene) complexes. Treatment of a Ni(0) complex (IPr)Ni(η 6 -toluene) (IPr = 1,3-bis(2,6-diisopropylphenyl)imidazole-2-ylidene) with chlorosilanes (R 1 R 2 SiCl 2 , R 1 = Cl, R 2 = Cl, Me, Ph, or R 1 = R 2 = Me, Et, Ph, 4-MePh) rapidly afforded di-Ni(I) complexes with a bridging silyl ligand ([(IPr)Ni] 2 (μ-SiR 1 R 2 Cl)(μ-Cl), 1 R1,R2 ) in high yields. Use of a bulkier chlorosilane, Ph 2 SiCl 2 , allowed the isolation of the mono-Ni(II) silyl complex (IPr)Ni(SiPh 2 Cl)Cl (2 Ph ) as an intermediate generated via Si–Cl oxidative addition, which underwent comproportionation with (IPr)Ni(η 6 -toluene) to form 1 Ph,Ph in nearly quantitative yield. Interestingly, 1 R1,R2 was found to react with H 2 at room temperature to form mono- or di-hydrosilanes in moderate to high yields, and the product selectivity was found to be highly dependent on the identity of substituents on Si. In conclusion, these results demonstrate a novel example of facile Si–Cl activation and hydrogenolysis mediated by low-valent mono- and dinuclear NHC–Ni complexes under mild conditions.

Liu, Tianchang [University of California, Berkeley↗
DOE OSTI2026

Syngas Production at Si Hybrid Photoelectrodes Modified with Re(I) and Mn(I) Tricarbonyl Phenanthroline Complexes Containing Reactive Aryl Azide Groups

We installed molecular CO 2 reduction (CO 2 R) catalysts directly onto Si (photo)electrodes. The highly reactive M(5-azido-1,10-phenanthroline)(CO) 3 X (where M = Mn or Re, X = Br or Cl) complexes readily bubbled when dissolved in polar organic solvents, in both the presence and absence of an ultraviolet light source. When placed on hydrogen-terminated Si (H-Si) and native silicon oxide (SiOx), similar amounts of the complex were attached to the surface under illumination (367 nm, 50–200 mW/cm 2 ) or in the dark. Surprisingly, these films revealed submonolayer coverages instead of the multilayered structures we expected. DFT analyses support monolayer formation, showing that the triplet-state nitrene of the complex is more energetically favorable than the singlet state. Using controlled-potential electrolysis experiments, we showed that Re- and Mn-containing films on pSi photoelectrodes generated small amounts of CO when exposed to 1 atm of CO 2 and 1 sun illumination. These amounts of CO were an order of magnitude greater than control surfaces, producing 5.59 × 10 –7 mol CO/h for Re(az-phen) and 7.83 × 10 –7 mol CO/h for Mn(az-phen) films. Much of the charge passed at the pSi electrodes was consumed by the competing hydrogen evolution reaction, which we attribute to the low molecular coverage and the presence of native oxide on the electrode surface after attachment. Finally, this work demonstrates the feasibility of reacting azide-containing ligands with Si surfaces. Still, it highlights the need for alternative ligand structures and reaction conditions to form multilayer films.

azides↗
DOE OSTI2021

Arrays of Si vacancies in 4 H -SiC produced by focused Li ion beam implantation

Point defects in SiC are an attractive platform for quantum information and sensing applications because they provide relatively long spin coherence times, optical spin initialization, and spin-dependent fluorescence readout in a fabrication-friendly semiconductor. The ability to precisely place these defects at the optimal location in a host material with nano-scale accuracy is desirable for integration of these quantum systems with traditional electronic and photonic structures. Here, we demonstrate the precise spatial patterning of arrays of silicon vacancy (${V}_{Si}$) emitters in an epitaxial 4H -SiC (0001) layer through mask-less focused ion beam implantation of Li + . We characterize these arrays with high-resolution scanning confocal fluorescence microscopy on the Si-face, observing sharp emission lines primarily coming from the ${V1}^{{\prime}}$ zero-phonon line (ZPL). The implantation dose is varied over 3 orders of magnitude, leading to ${V}_{Si}$ densities from a few per implantation spot to thousands per spot, with a linear dependence between ZPL emission and implantation dose. Optically-detected magnetic resonance (ODMR) is also performed, confirming the presence of V2 ${V}_{Si}$. Our investigation reveals scalable and reproducible defect generation.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2020

Assembling Si 2 BN nanoribbons into a 3D porous structure as a universal anode material for both Li- and Na-ion batteries with high performance

The development of anode materials is critical to the success of sodium ion batteries (SIBs). Because of the size difference between Li and Na, the commercial anode material graphite in Li-ion batteries does not work for Na-ion batteries. Thus, it will be ideal if some universal anode materials could work for both Li- and Na-ion batteries with high performance. Inspired by a recent study on the high performance of a 2D-Si 2 BN sheet as an anode material for Li-ion batteries, we design a three dimensional (3D) porous structure by using the nanoribbons of a Si 2 BN sheet as building blocks. Based on the state-of-the-art ab initio calculations, we find that the resulting 3D porous Si 2 BN structure is stable chemically, dynamically and thermally, exhibiting a high specific capacity of 512.42 (341.61 mA h g -1 ), a low voltage of 0.27 V (0.15 V), a small volume expansion of 2.5% (2.7%), and a low migration energy barrier of 0.44 eV (0.19 eV) for Li- (Na-) ion batteries. Finally, these intriguing features, together with the light mass and rich abundance of Si, B and N, suggest that the 3D porous Si2BN structure is a promising candidate for the anode material of both Li- and Na-ion batteries.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2021

Tailoring superconducting phases observed in hyperdoped Si:Ga for cryogenic circuit applications

Hyperdoping with gallium (Ga) has been established as a route to observe superconductivity in silicon (Si). The relatively large critical temperatures (T c ) and magnetic fields (B c ) make this phase attractive for cryogenic circuit applications, particularly for scalable hybrid superconductor-semiconductor platforms. However, the robustness of Si:Ga superconductivity at millikelvin temperatures is yet to be evaluated. Here, we report the presence of a reentrant resistive transition below T c for Si:Ga whose magnitude strongly depends on the distribution of the Ga clusters that precipitate in the implanted Si after annealing. By monitoring the reentrant resistance over a wide parameter space of implantation energies and fluences, we determine conditions that significantly improve the coherent coupling of Ga clusters, therefore, eliminating the reentrant transition at temperatures as low as 20 mK.

77 NANOSCIENCE AND NANOTECHNOLOGY↗
DOE OSTI2022

Non-Equilibrium Doping of Poly-Si:Ga/SiOx Passivating Contacts Solar Cells

In this contribution, we show that Ga-hyperdoped poly-Si/SiOx contacts are realized by pulsed laser annealing and post-hydrogenation. The motivation behind this work is to improve the inferior performance of boron-doped poly- Si/SiOx contacts when compared to the phosphorus-doped contacts. Here we used Ga as a novel p-type dopant to replace B, as B is known to accumulate at the interface between the oxide and the crystalline silicon and cause recombination. Due to a high diffusivity of Ga in oxide and a much higher segregation coefficient (Si:SiOx), Ga is shown to be immune to the oxide pileup phenomenon. However, Ga has a low solid solubility limit in Si (5x10^19 cm-3), which is not enough to form a low resistivity contact. To overcome this problem, we explored pulsed laser annealing via excimer laser by varying the laser energy densities and pulses. The passivation and electrical properties are studied systematically using photoluminescence (PL), secondary ion mass spectrometry (SIMS), and Van der Pauw-Hall measurements. We show an active Ga doping concentration above 1x10^20 cm^-3, which is above the solid solubility limit of Ga in Si. Good passivation quality is demonstrated with the highest implied Voc (iVoc) of 721 mV on single side polished samples. Furthermore, a low diode contact resistivity of ~22 m..omega.. cm^2 is obtained using Ti/Ag contacts, with minimal metal-to-semiconductor contact resistivity of 0.9 m..omega.. cm^2.

non-equilibrium doping↗
DOE OSTI2023

An electron paramagnetic resonance study of the electron transport in heavily Si-doped high Al content AlxGa1−xN

High Al mole fraction AlGaN is an ultrawide bandgap semiconductor with potential applications in power electronics and deep UV detectors. Although n-type material is achievable with Si-doping, the role of Si is controversial, particularly for AlxGa1−xN with x > 0.8. For this paper, AlGaN films were grown by plasma-assisted molecular beam epitaxy onto bulk AlN substrates and doped with 1018–1020 cm−3 Si. We examine electron transport in heavily Si-doped AlxGa1−xN with x ≥ 0.65 using magnetic resonance, which allows us to probe the neutral donors directly rather than the free carriers and avoids complications due to electrical contacts. Transport was studied through the temperature-dependent linewidth of the electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) signature for the neutral donor. Analysis shows evidence of hopping conductivity in the most lightly doped samples and impurity band formation in the most heavily doped ones. The EPR results, which are consistent with Hall measurements performed on the same samples, are promising for the development of highly conducting high Al content AlGaN.

Materials Science↗
DOE OSTI2022

A 100-Mrad (Si) JFET-based Sensing and Communications System for Extreme Nuclear Instrumentation Environments

Dry cask storage is one of two storage methods approved by the U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission for spent fuel after removal from reactor cores. Dry casks consist of a stainless steel canister enclosed in a concrete overpack to contain the hazardous radioactive spent fuel rods and provide radiation shielding. Monitoring spent fuel storage casks is desired to ensure the safe containment of the enclosed spent fuel, but is very difficult due to the related harsh temperature and radiation environment. The sensors and associated electronics to monitor temperature, pressure, and/or radiation need to survive high temperatures and radiation doses for extended time periods. For this reason, there is a severe need for radiation-hardened electrical systems that survive well beyond the existing capabilities of commercially available radiation-rated electronic components, which have primarily been developed for space applications. Junction-gate field-effect transistor (JFET) devices are inherently radiation hardened [exceeding 100 Mrad (Si)]. Additionally, when JFETs are used as building blocks for sensing and communication electronics (i.e., oscillators, amplifiers, filters, and mixers), inherently radiation-hardened circuits can be achieved. To this end, JFET-based radiation-hardened electronics interfacing with cask-embedded sensors capable of driving modulated sensor signals through a stainless steel barrier were designed and tested at a dose rate of approximately 500 krad/h (Si) to beyond a 200-Mrad (Si) total ionizing dose. After 200 Mrad (Si), the sensor and communication circuit signals were correctly decoded at the receiver despite oscillator drift. The results from this experiment demonstrate the potential for creating more complex radiation-hardened JFET-based electrical systems for nuclear environments.

46 INSTRUMENTATION RELATED TO NUCLEAR SCIENCE AND ↗