Opaque minerals in certain lunar rocks from Apollo 11
Opaque minerals in Apollo 11 lunar igneous and fragmental rocks, using reflecting microscope and electron microprobe
Cameron, E. N.↗
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The Contrast in Outgassing of Germanium Between Shergottites and Nakhlites
Final Paper and not the abstract is attached. Introduction: Germanium is generally thought to follow Si in its geochemical behavior, but little data has existed to rigorously understand the behavior of Ge in the Martian mantle. Germanium is known to be more siderophile than Si, and its partitioning into the martian core has been studied by. Typical abundances in igneous martian meteorites range from 0.5-3 ppm, a larger range than what is observed in terrestrial basalts (1.5 +/- 0.1 ppm). In situ measurements by the MER and MSL rovers have revealed a surprisingly large range in Ge abundances in surface rocks (30-650 ppm), but many igneous rocks and soils are shown to have greater than 30 ppm Ge (the detection limit of the APXS). Recently, reported that shergottite minerals showed a depletion of Ge with increasing fractionation, while nakhlites and chassignites exhibited Ge behavior compatible with closed system igneous differentiation. They interpreted their observations as tentatively indicating volcanic outgassing of Ge from shergottites (but not from nakhlite-chassignites) with recondensation of the Ge vapor into soils and breccias. Recent experimental studies show that Ge is significantly volatile from magmas. In this study, we followed up on those results by analyzing minerals in five nakhlites and five shergottites by laser ablation ICP-MS (LA-ICP-MS). See Attached
Yang, S.↗
Cathodoluminescence of shocked quartz at the Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary
Empirical studies have documented an association between rock type and the cathodoluminescence color of constituent quartz grains. Quartz from extrusive igneous sources luminesces uniform pale blue. Quartz from intrusive igneous and high-grade metamorphic rocks generally luminesces darker purple-blue, whereas quartz recrystallized under low-grade metamorphic conditions luminesces reddish-brown. Quartz grains in most sandstones luminesce a heterogeneous mixture of these colors because the grains were derived from a variety of ultimate source rocks. If shocked quartz found at the Cretaceous-Tertiary (K-T) boundary is volcanic in origin, its cathodoluminescence should be predominantly pale blue. Alternatively, quartz grains derived from bolide impact upon, and ejection of, mixed igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary rocks should luminesce a variety of colors. Grain mounts of sand collected at the K-T boundary horizon from the Clear Creek North site in the Raton Basin, Colorado were examined. Shocked quartz luminesced a variety of colors and very few grains luminesced the pale blue color that is typical of volcanic quartz. It was concluded that the shocked quartz was derived from a petrologically diverse source region without substantial volcanic contribution. Most shocked grains apparently were derived from low-grade metamorphic rocks, with a slightly smaller contribution from high-grade metamorphic and intrusive igneous rocks. Rare quartz grains with brown-luminescing rims reflect a minor addition from detrital sedimentary sources. The apparent relative abundances of intrusive (and rare extrusive) igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary ultimate source rocks suggested by CL colors of shock-deformed quartz at the K-T boundary is consistent with a crustal/supracrustal origin for the grains.
Owen, Michael R.↗
Extensional tectonics during the igneous emplacement of the mafic-ultramafic rocks of the Barberton greenstone belt
The simatic rocks (Onverwacht Group) of the Barberton greenstone belt are part of the Jamestown ophiolite complex. This ophiolite, together with its thick sedimentary cover occupies a complex thrust belt. Field studies have identified two types of early faults which are entirely confined to the simatic rocks and are deformed by the later thrusts and associated folds. The first type of fault (F1a) is regional and always occurs in the simatic rocks along and parallel to the lower contacts of the ophiolite-related cherts (Middle Marker and equivalent layers). These fault zones have previously been referred to both as flaser-banded gneisses and as weathering horizons. In general the zones range between 1-30m in thickness. Displacements along these zones are difficult to estimate, but may be in the order of 1-100 km. The structures indicate that the faults formed close to horizontal, during extensional shear and were therefore low angle normal faults. F1a zones overlap in age with the formation of the ophiolite complex. The second type of faults (F1b) are vertical brittle-ductile shear zones, which crosscut the complex at variable angles and cannot always be traced from plutonic to overlying extrusive (pillowed) simatic rocks. F1b zones are also apparently of penecontemporaneous origin with the intrusive-extrusive igneous processs. F1b zones may either represent transform fault-type activity or represent root zones (steepened extensions) of F1a zones. Both fault types indicate extensive deformation in the rocks of the greenstone belt prior to compressional overthrust tectonics.
Dewit, M. J.↗
Research core drilling in the Manson impact structure, Iowa
The Manson impact structure (MIS) has a diameter of 35 km and is the largest confirmed impact structure in the United States. The MIS has yielded a Ar-40/Ar-39 age of 65.7 Ma on microcline from its central peak, an age that is indistinguishable from the age of the Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary. In the summer of 1991 the Iowa Geological Survey Bureau and U.S. Geological Survey initiated a research core drilling project on the MIS. The first core was beneath 55 m of glacial drift. The core penetrated a 6-m layered sequence of shale and siltstone and 42 m of Cretaceous shale-dominated sedimentary clast breccia. Below this breccia, the core encountered two crystalline rock clast breccia units. The upper unit is 53 m thick, with a glassy matrix displaying various degrees of devitrification. The upper half of this unit is dominated by the glassy matrix, with shock-deformed mineral grains (especially quartz) the most common clast. The glassy-matrix unit grades downward into the basal unit in the core, a crystalline rock breccia with a sandy matrix, the matrix dominated by igneous and metamorphic rock fragments or disaggregated grains from those rocks. The unit is about 45 m thick, and grains display abundant shock deformation features. Preliminary interpretations suggest that the crystalline rock breccias are the transient crater floor, lifted up with the central peak. The sedimentary clast breccia probably represents a postimpact debris flow from the crater rim, and the uppermost layered unit probably represents a large block associated with the flow. The second core (M-2) was drilled near the center of the crater moat in an area where an early crater model suggested the presence of postimpact lake sediments. The core encountered 39 m of sedimentary clast breccia, similar to that in the M-1 core. Beneath the breccia, 120 m of poorly consolidated, mildly deformed, and sheared siltstone, shale, and sandstone was encountered. The basal unit in the core was another sequence of sedimentary clast breccia. The two sedimentary clast units, like the lithologically similar unit in the M-1 core, probably formed as debris flows from the crater rim. The middle, nonbrecciated interval is probably a large, intact block of Upper Cretaceous strata transported from the crater rim with the debris flow. Alternatively, the sequence may represent the elusive postimpact lake sequence.
Anderson, R. R.↗
Pristine nonmare rocks and the nature of the lunar crust
It is shown that the interdisciplinary study of the nonmare lunar rocks based on trace element, major element, and isotopic data plus petrographic evidence can succeed in amassing a large suite of demonstrably pristine rocks, and that the relative numbers of these rocks are not in accord with statistics amassed on soil fragments and glasses. The term 'pristine' is taken to mean rocks with primary compositions (albeit not necessarily textures) produced by lunar endogenous igneous processes. Melt rocks and crystalline matrix breccias produced by impact processes are excluded. A petrographic synonym for pristine would be 'unremelted, monomict'. It is found that anorthositic norites and noritic anorthosites were rare as primary nonmare rocks. Mechanical mixing appears to have been the dominant petrogenetic process on the highlands.
Warren, P. H.↗
A compilation of information and data on the Manson impact structure
A problem for the impact hypothesis for the Cretaceous-Tertiary (K-T) mass extinction is the apparent absence of an identifiable impact site. The Manson Impact Structure is a candidate because it is the largest recognized in the U.S.; it is relatively close to the largest and most abundant shocked quartz grains found at the K-T boundary; and its age is indistinguishable from that of the K-T boundary based on paleontological evidence, fission track dates, and preliminary Ar-40/Ar-39 measurements. The region of northwest central Iowa containing the Manson Impact Structure is covered by Quaternary glacial deposits underlain by Phanerozoic sedimentary rocks (mostly flat-lying carbonates) and Proterozoic red clastic, metamorphic, volcanic, and plutonic rocks. In a circular area about 22 miles (35 km) in diameter around Manson, Iowa, this normal sequence is absent or disturbed and near the center of the disturbed area granitic basement rocks have been uplifted some 20,000 ft (6000m). Attention was drawn to Manson initially by the unusual quality of the groundwater there. Within the structure three roughly concentric zones of rock associations have been identified: (1) displaced strata; (2) completely disrupted strata, and igneous and metamorphic rocks. Manson was established as an impact structure based on its circular shape, its central uplift, and the presence of shocked quartz within the granitic central uplift. A gravity survey identified locations of low-density brecciated rocks and high-density uplifted crystalline rocks, but the outer boundary of the structure could not be established. Aeromagnetic and ground magnetic surveys showed locations and depths of shallowly buried crystalline rock and the locations of faults. A refraction seismic survey identified the crystalline central uplift, determined that the average elevation of bedrock is 70 ft (20 m) higher outside the structure than within, and was used to map the bedrock topography within the structure. A connection between the Manson impact and the K-T boundary may be established or refuted through study of the impact energy, the impact time, and composition of host rock, possible impactors, and impact melts.
Hartung, Jack B.↗
Plagioclase twin laws in lunar highland rocks - Possible petrogenetic significance
Plagioclases in different types of lunar highland rocks (all highly feldspathic) are twinned according to different laws and in different styles. Carlsbad and Carlsbad-albite twins, presumed to be growth twins, occur mainly in rocks which show igneous texture, and which have not been severely brecciated. These two twin laws appear to be absent from cataclastic rocks, including cataclastic anorthosite, possibly because the original twins were preferentially broken up in cataclasis (the composition plane being a plane of weakness). Pericline and lamellar albite twins, presumed to be deformation twins (except for some albite growth twins) occur in all types of rocks, and obvious deformation features, such as bending of lamellae, are well shown in many cataclastic rocks. Surprisingly, some Carlsbad and Carlsbad-albite twins are found in rocks with granoblastic texture, which presumably recrystallized in the solid state.
Dowty, E.↗
The nature of asteroidal differentiation processes - Implications for primordial heat sources
A review of the geochemical data on basaltic achondrite group meteorites, here defined as diogenites, eucrites, howardites, mesosiderites, main-group pallasites and IIIAB irons, suggests that the following processes and properties were important in determining the compositions of igneous materials on asteroidal sized bodies: (1) inhomogeneities in source rock compositions, (2) variable degrees of partial melting from 5-100%, (3) multiple melt genesis from a single source region, (4) fractional crystallization, and (5) remelting of earlier formed igneous rocks. All of this activity started during or shortly after the major asteroidal accretion phase as suggested by the numerous 4.6 Gyr ages for eucrites and may have lasted for at least 200 m.y. The above properties imply an early, intense heat source that was both spatially and temporally variable. A review of asteroid thermal modeling for various heat sources shows that heating by short-lived Al-26 alone appears to be incapable of supplying the observed geochemical variations.
Mittlefehldt, D. W.↗
Near-infrared Reflectance of Rocks at high Temperature: Preliminary Results and Implications for Near-infrared Emissivity of Venus's Surface
Light emitted from Venus’s surface can be viewed through spectral “windows” in its atmosphere, in the nearinfrared (NIR) around 1000 nanometer (nm) wavelengths. The NIR emissivity of Venus’s surface can constrain rock types and their weathering state; emissivities can be measured directly or calculated from reflectances. We measured the reflectances of igneous and sedimentary rocks at Venus’s surface temperature, 400 °C–500 °C at 850 and 950 nm; samples were heated in a box furnace in air, illuminated by light-emitting diodes (LEDs), and imaged with a modified charge-coupled device (CCD) camera. Reflectances were also measured at 25 °C from 350 to 1400 nm. Rock reflectances at 850 and 950 nm and 400 °C–500 °C are nearly identical to those at 25 °C, except for the effects of nanophase hematite forming on some surfaces. Fresh basalts have reflectances (high and low temperatures) near 7.5%; a leucogranite similarly has reflectances near 50%. Pigmentary hematite has nearly identical reflectances at high- and low-temperature at these wavelengths. Pigmentary hematite appears dark brown 400 °C–500 °C because its absorption edge has shifted to beyond the limit of human vision. These rock reflectances imply that basalts should have emissivities near 0.9, and granite (and similar felsic rocks) should have lower emissivities ∼0.5. Thus, basalt and felsic rock should be easily distinguished in NIR emissivity measurements of Venus’s surface, such as are baselined in recent Venus mission proposals. Other sedimentary rocks should have even lower emissivities: quartz sand at around ∼0.3, and anhydrite as low as 0.1.
Allan H Treiman↗
Apollo 16 exploration of Descartes - A geologic summary.
The Cayley Plains at the Apollo 16 landing site consist of crudely stratified breccias to a depth of at least 200 meters, overlain by a regolith 10 to 15 meters thick. Samples, photographs, and observations by the astronauts indicate that most of the rocks are impact breccias derived from an anorthosite-gabbro complex. The least brecciated members of the suite include coarse-grained anorthosite and finer-grained, more mafic rocks, some with igneous and some with metamorphic textures. Much of the transverse area is covered by ejecta from North Ray and South Ray craters, but the abundance of rock fragments increases to the south toward the younger South Ray crater.
Source record↗
Apennine Front revisited - Diversity of Apollo 15 highland rock types
The Apollo 15 landing site is geologically the most complex of the Apollo sites, situated at a mare-highland interface within the rings of two of the last major basin-forming impacts. Few of the Apollo 15 samples are ancient highland rocks derived from the early differentiation of the moon, or impact melts from major basin impacts. Most of the samples are regolith breccias containing abundant clasts of younger volcanic mare and KREEP basalts. The early geologic evolution of the region can be understood only by examining the small fragments of highland rocks found in regolith breccias and soils. Geochemical and petrologic studies of clasts and matrices of three impact melt breccias and four regolith breccias are presented. Twelve igneous and metamorphic rocks show extreme diversity and include a new type of ferroan norite. Twenty-five samples of highland impact melt are divided into groups based on composition. These impact melts form nearly a continuum over more than an order of magnitude in REE concentrations. This continuum may result from both major basin impacts and younger local events. Highland rocks from the Apennine Front include most of the highland rock types found at all of the other sites. An extreme diversity of highland rocks is a fundamental characteristic of the Apennine Front and is a natural result of its complex geologic evolution.
Lindstrom, Marilyn M.↗
On the original igneous source of Martian fines
The composition of the silicate portion of Martian regolith fines indicates derivation of the fines from mafic to ultramafic rocks, probably rich in pyroxene. Rock types similar in chemical and mineralogical composition include terrestrial Archean basalts and certain achondrite meteorites. If these igneous rocks weathered nearly isochemically, the nontronitic clays proposed earlier as an analog to Martian fines could be formed. Flood basalts of pyroxenitic lavas may be widespread and characteristic of early volcanism on Mars, analogous to maria flood basalts on the moon and early Precambrian basaltic komatiites on earth. Compositional differences between lunar, terrestrial, and Martian flood basalts may be related to differences in planetary sizes and mantle compositions of the respective planetary objects.
Baird, A. K.↗
RECLAIM: Electrochemical Lithium and Nickel Extraction with Concurrent Carbon Dioxide Mineralization
This project aims to develop technologies toward the production of Li and Ni from CO 2 -reactive minerals and rocks that contain Ca and Mg, while sequestering CO 2 . The technologies include acoustic stimulation and electrolytic proton production, which use electricity to liberate valuable metal ions from the surrounding mineral matrix at sub-boiling temperatures (~20-80°C). Feedstocks include Li/Ni/Ca/Mg-rich igneous and sedimentary rocks and minerals such as holmquistite, hectorite, lateritic Ni ores enriched in Mg-rich serpentine. Other examples of feedstocks that could be used include coarse grained orthocumulate, mine tailings, etc. In the first step, the electrolytic breakdown of water to H + and OH – (as well as O 2 and H 2 ) will be induced by applying an electric potential to simultaneously produce acidity and alkalinity. The solid feedstocks will be dissolved in the acidic anolyte under acoustic stimulation. Solubilized species will then undergo separation using our unique Li + -selective membranes driven by electrodialysis, leading to concentration of Li as soluble lithium silicate, from which Li 2 CO 3 can be derived by reaction with CO 2(g) while supplying cathode alkalinity. Also at the cathode, stepwise electrolytic precipitation of metal hydroxides, including Ni(OH) 2 , Ca(OH) 2 , and Mg(OH) 2 is performed along a cascade reactor in which both the applied potential and pH increase downstream, thereby simultaneously extracting and separating the metals. Finally, exposure of Ca(OH) 2 and Mg(OH) 2 to dilute CO 2 will result in CO 2 uptake in the form of Ca and Mg carbonates. The primary accomplishments include sample procurement and characterization. Progress has been made on precursor identification and mapping, establishing protocols for assessing metal extractability under sonication, and preliminary technoeconomic analysis (TEA) and life cycle analysis (LCA).
36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
Petrology of the Apollo 12 highland component
Petrologic study of highland rock fragments handpicked from the Apollo 12 coarse fines confirms the KREEPy nature of the A-12 highland components and the importance of norites and alkali anorthosites. This is in contrast to the calcic, non-KREEPy A-16 and A-11 highland lithologies. The results add to the complexity of the igneous lunar highland rocks, which models for the formation of the lunar crust must take into account. A model involving moonwide differentiation followed by serial magmatism and heavy brecciation seems to be required. Results also show that non-KREEPy highland materials are present at the A-12 site and may represent Copernican and Imbrium ejecta, whereas the KREEPy materials may represent pre-Imbrian terra, as at the A-14 site.
Simon, S. B.↗
A model of early lunar differentiation
The presence of anorthosites and the scarcity of complementary mafic rocks in the lunar crust suggest a body of melt with depth of the order of the depth of the crust itself (about 60 km). This depth is consistent with geophysical and geochemical models which call for a depth of melting of the order of 200-500 km. The major and minor element compositions of the ancient pristine rocks require complex igneous processes if the moon accreted homogeneously and has chondritic interelement ratios among the refractory elements. Anorthosites crystallized from magmas that had assimilated plagioclase and a light REE-enriched component. KREEP as well as most of the troctolites and norites formed from relatively primitive magmas that were mixed with a LIL-enriched, Sc-Ti depleted component. Assimilation and mixing processes inferred for pristine rocks are consistent with crystallization from a convecting magma ocean which initially developed a floating anorthosite crust with a plagioclase-saturated boundary layer beneath it, transitional in temperature and composition to the main body of the magma beneath it.
Longhi, J.↗
Impact of Stress-Activated Positive Holes on the Redox Timing in Organisms Living at the Surface of Rocks: Unlocking Nature's Secrets
Squeezing and deforming igneous and/or high-grade metamorphic rocks activates electronic charge carriers known as positive holes, h•, that are defect electrons in the O2– sublattice. Similar to h• in semiconductors the h• in rocks affect electrical and thermal properties. They produce electrochemical reactions, localized electrical signals, and currents. In this study, we explore the effects of positive holes on the electron flow in the electron transport chain (ETC) of organisms living at the surface of rocks such as gabbro or granite. We found that positive holes, h•, disrupt the temporal coordination in vivo governed by oscillating reduction-oxidation reactions, known as the redox cycle. Positive holes affect the timing of the redox cycle by interacting with molecules in vivo, leading to the formation of superoxide anions and hydroxyl radicals. Thus, we observed that positive holes significantly impede the growth of yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae (i.e., colony size) and delay the sprouting of broccoli and chia seeds. Additionally, positive holes were found to exert discernible impacts on plant development such as stem length and leaf size. Our findings highlight the intricate interplay between positive holes, redox timing, and biological processes, shedding light on the potentially significant role of positive holes in influencing the growth and development of organisms in tectonically stressed rock environments. Understanding these effects has implications for a broader understanding of redox biology and of how environmental factors can influence cellular development in natural settings.
Redox Timing in Organisms↗
Impact of Stress-Activated Positive Holes on the Redox Timing in Organisms Living at the Surface of Rocks: Unlocking Nature's Secrets
Stressing and deforming igneous and/or high-grade metamorphic rocks activates electronic charge carriers known as positive holes, h•, that are defect electrons in the O2–sublattice, e.g. O-states. Like h•in semiconductors, the h•in rocks affect electrical and thermal properties. They produce electrochemical reactions, localized electrical signals, and currents. In this study, we explore the effects of positive holes on the electron flow in the electron transport chain (ETC) of organisms living at the surface of rocks such as gabbro or granite. We found that positive holes, h•, disrupt the in vivotemporal coordination governed by oscillating reduction-oxidation reactions, known as the redox cycle. Positive holes affect the timing of the redox cycle by interacting with essentialmolecules in vivo, leading to the formation of hydroxyl radicals and superoxide anions. We observed that positive holes significantly impede the growth of yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae(i.e., colony size) and delay the sprouting of broccoli seeds. Additionally, positive holes were found to exert discernible impacts on plant development such as stem length and leaf size. Our findings highlight the intricate interplay between positive holes, redox timing, and biological processes, shedding light on the potentially significant role of positive holes in influencing the growth and development of organisms in tectonically stressed crustal environments. Understanding these effects has implications for a broader understanding of redox biology and of how environmental factors can influence cellular development in natural settings.
hypermutation↗